ࡱ> 03-./[ bjbj .ΐΐ;,6 !@;"0k"k"k""""8"$#D"ed$Rq'q'L''(((ddddddd$jlB(dMk"((((((dk"k"''ue222(k"'k"'d2(d22N]b'p+ 8">1V_Lce0e_pm>1rm`bmk"b((2((((((d(d2(((e((((m((((((((( : Cultures, traditions and radical humanism Social Anthropology, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK. Andrew.Hodges@manchester.ac.uk This work was supported by the Economic and Social Research Council [grant number ES/F022727/1] Abstract In this paper I review debates concerning the analytic use and ethnographic prevalence of the culture concept in social anthropology with specific focus on Anglo-American and South-East European anthropological traditions. I draw specific attention to the highly problematic use and prevalence of the culture concept amongst people with whom I spoke whilst conducting fieldwork in Belgrade and Zagreb. The paper begins with a discussion of problems concerning the idea of culture and how the term is used. It then moves to consider debates surrounding culture with particular emphasis on its use amongst the academic Left. Writing from an antinational, radical humanist perspective, I argue that the insistence on strong versions of cultural difference and the definition of culture as a bounded whole resonates with a mainstream Western tradition that anthropological writing on the Balkans would do well to avoid. The paper concludes with a discussion surrounding the possibility of acknowledging the importance and reclaiming the concept of tradition as an alternative for 'culture talk', which is rejected for its insistence on radical cultural difference and uncomfortable tendency to reify social wholes. Keywords: culture, anthropology, Marxism, nationalism, difference, tradition Introduction Culture is a well-worn word, not only in Anglo-American anthropology but in many different contexts all over the world at present. Its meanings and uses have been discussed, dissected and deconstructed by various anthropologists; particularly those writing in or commenting on the mainstream anthropological tradition in the USA, for which the concept was imported via Franz Boas from German Romanticism (see Kuper 1999:539). Whilst the debates may be somewhat exhausted, its use is not as Kuper remarked, Everyone is into culture now. For anthropologists, culture was once a term of art. Now the natives talk culture back at them. Culture the word itself, or some local equivalent, is on everyones lips, Marshall Sahlins has observed  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"j4o1u6lq5","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kuper 1999, p.2)","plainCitation":"(Kuper 1999, p.2)","dontUpdate":true},"citationItems":[{"id":304,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/UHZF77NR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/UHZF77NR"],"itemData":{"id":304,"type":"book","title":"Culture: The Anthropologists' Account","publisher":"Harvard University Press","number-of-pages":"310","ISBN":"0674179579","shortTitle":"Culture","author":[{"family":"Kuper","given":"Adam"}],"issued":{"year":1999,"month":5,"day":5}},"locator":"2","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (1999, p.2). As such, it is worth paying continued attention to the concept, and especially to how it is used by those people alongside whom anthropologists work when conducting fieldwork. This is particularly the case as the concept has become more fashionable since the Second World war in articulating nationalisms, as biological explanations in terms of race came to be regarded as dangerous and/or distasteful. In this article, I discuss the use of the term culture with respect to the context in which I heard it when completing fieldwork, as used in the context of everyday discussions with scentists and students in Belgrade, Serbia and Zagreb, Croatia. I focus in the first instance on reviewing a theoretical debate in the discipline rather than discussing my fieldwork in great detail. I do however highlight, where relevant, how my perspective on the debate emerged when thinking through my field work experiences. I begin with a brief discussion of cultural relativism as employed by some informants and anthropologists in the Balkan context. I then review the use of the term culture in the Anglo-American anthropological tradition. My central argument is that the insistence on strong versions of cultural difference and the definition of culture as a bounded whole resonates with a mainstream Western tradition that anthropological writing on the Balkans would do well to avoid. The paper concludes with a discussion surrounding the possibility of acknowledging the importance and reclaiming the concept of tradition as an alternative for 'culture talk', which is rejected for its insistence on radical cultural difference and uncomfortable tendency to reify social wholes. Culture in the field Given the sensitivity of the Serbian and Croatian post-war contexts in which I worked, I was told by some people with whom I spoke that I would never be able to, nor should I try to write a project based around recent events, as I could never know the language or historical background well enough to make an informed assessment, or that I wouldn't be able to understand as I hadn't been there during the nineties.  Such accusations could be divided into two categories a gentler accusation that my lack of first-hand experience of the wars meant that I could not make an informed assessment, and a more extreme accusation that I would never be able to adequately master the language or experience the culture first hand if I didnt have roots in the region. These experiences resonated with documented experiences of other anthropologists working in the region, such as  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"c6pd3nss9","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (Simi\\uc0\\u263{} 2009)}","plainCitation":"(Simi 2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":51,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/77TQGPXV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/77TQGPXV"],"itemData":{"id":51,"type":"thesis","title":"'Exit to Europe': state, travel, popular music and 'normal life' in a Serbian town","publisher":"University of Manchester","publisher-place":"Manchester","number-of-pages":"325","event-place":"Manchester","language":"English","author":[{"family":"Simi","given":"Marina"}],"issued":{"year":2009}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} Simi (2009) and  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"m69a02fd5","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Van de Port 1999)","plainCitation":"(Van de Port 1999)"},"citationItems":[{"id":150,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/FQWT2MAE"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/FQWT2MAE"],"itemData":{"id":150,"type":"article-journal","title":"It takes a Serb to know a Serb","container-title":"Critique of Anthropology","page":"730","volume":"19","issue":"1","author":[{"family":"Van de Port","given":"M."}],"issued":{"year":1999},"page-first":"730"}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} Van de Port (1999). Simi, who grew up in the region, was questioned about the  gentler aspect, namely over whether had been in Yugoslavia during the nineties, particularly durng the time of the NATO bombings. Another anthropologist, Van de Port, who came from a Western European background in some ways similar to my own, discussed these issues in his article It takes a Serb to know a Serb. During his fieldwork in the early nineties, he frequently faced similar charges that he would never be able to understand the situation or language sufficiently to comment upon events. From this, he drew a series of highly problematic and non-empirical conclusions, accepting the nationalist terms of debate with which some informants presented him, as expressed in the charge, you dont know our history, where the first person plural 'our' often (but not always) depicted Serbs. His analysis of tavern life in Novi Sad displayed a strong version of cultural relativism whereby he insisted on what he termed the 'obstinate otherness' of the culture he believed himself to be investigating, and that he could never know sufficiently. He thus appropriated culture as an analytic concept. This was by no means an unorthodox move in social anthropology, although he acknowledged that the extreme relativism he and some of his informants were promoting was fairly radical even within the discipline  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"g7TsFAvP","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Van de Port 1999, 8)","plainCitation":"(Van de Port 1999, 8)"},"citationItems":[{"id":150,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/FQWT2MAE"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/FQWT2MAE"],"itemData":{"id":150,"type":"article-journal","title":"It takes a Serb to know a Serb","container-title":"Critique of Anthropology","page":"730","volume":"19","issue":"1","author":[{"family":"Van de Port","given":"M."}],"issued":{"year":1999},"page-first":"730"},"locator":"8","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Van de Port 1999, 8). I repeatedly came across informants who had understandings of Serbian and Croatian culture as bounded wholes which I did and could not belong to whilst engaged in fieldwork as well. For example, I found that the concept of a 'national mentality' was often referred to in everyday speech, with attributed 'personality' characteristics, often indexed using the first person plural pronoun we. Despite reference to a national mentality which evokes a static and unchanging personality or collective ego, it struck me that the concept of national mentality was often understood as being a historical fact, with references made to the effects of different historical legacies  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"3b52hhhua","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Todorova 2009)","plainCitation":"(Todorova 2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":214,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/M9R5RTAA"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/M9R5RTAA"],"itemData":{"id":214,"type":"book","title":"Imagining the Balkans","publisher":"OUP USA","number-of-pages":"286","edition":"Updated Edition","ISBN":"0195387864","author":[{"family":"Todorova","given":"Maria"}],"issued":{"year":2009,"month":4,"day":30}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Todorova 2009), such as the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires. This was unsurprising given the organisation of social and political life in the region over the past century, some details of which I will now briefly discuss. Nationalisms during and after the SFRY Whilst the Social Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (hereon SFRY) was antinationalist, it most certainly was not antinational. Despite the leadership arguing against nationalisms as a political organising principle, they accepted national categories developed in earlier nation-building attempts, reifying the existence of national categories such as Serb and Croat. For instance, the president Josip Broz Tito stated that, for almost twenty years I have been living in Belgrade, and among the Serbs, I feel as a Serb, whereas in Croatia, I feel as a Croat. I am a Yugoslav and it cannot be otherwise (taubringer, cited in  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1oako3iq9n","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Godina 1998, p.416)","plainCitation":"(Godina 1998, p.416)","dontUpdate":true},"citationItems":[{"id":262,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/S6TH7QA5"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/S6TH7QA5"],"itemData":{"id":262,"type":"article-journal","title":"The outbreak of nationalism on former Yugoslav Territory: a historical perspective on the problem of supranational identity","container-title":"Nations and Nationalism","page":"409422","volume":"4","issue":"3","shortTitle":"The outbreak of nationalism on former Yugoslav Territory","author":[{"family":"Godina","given":"V.V."}],"issued":{"year":1998},"page-first":"409422"},"locator":"416","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} Godina 1998, p.416). Furthermore, as the writer Dubravka Ugreai observed: If anything in former Yugoslavia can really be described as abundantly stressed (rather than repressed), then it was folklore. For some fifty years, the Yugoslav peoples capered and pranced, tripped and jigged in their brightly coloured national costumes in various formations (of the songs and dances of the nations and nationalities of Yugoslavia)...ethnic identities were forged by stamping, skipping, whirling, twirling, choral singing, pipes, lutes, harmonicas and drums  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1qio6frfeg","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (Ugre\\uc0\\u353{}i\\uc0\\u263{} 1999, 131\\uc0\\u8211{}2)}","plainCitation":"(Ugreai 1999, 131 2)"},"citationItems":[{"id":173,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/H9JG7MWW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/H9JG7MWW"],"itemData":{"id":173,"type":"book","title":"The Culture Of Lies","publisher":"Phoenix","number-of-pages":"256","edition":"New edition","ISBN":"075380736X","author":[{"family":"Ugreai","given":"Dubravka"}],"issued":{"year":1999,"month":7,"day":1}},"locator":"131-2","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ugreai 1999, 131 2). Indeed, a stress on folklore is present to this day in Central Eastern European anthropological traditions, which typically have at least one section of anthropology departments committed to ethnology and the study of folk traditions and culture in the region. This is often alongside anthropological work which draws more heavily on other traditions, particularly the Anglo-American tradition at present, and which is often more theoretical in focus. The SFRY thus actively continued in a process of constructing ethnic identities, which had begun in early periods of nation-building, notably in the late nineteenth century. This was achieved through the promotion of a multicultural politics underpinned by the socialist rhetoric of brotherhood and unity amongst the various Yugoslav nations. In the 1974 constitution, provision was made for extensive decentralisation, a political move which lay the ground for the recent production of nationally defined states. This view, far from being challenged over the past twenty years after the SFRY ceased to exist, was reinforced both by advocates of nationalist political strategies in the post-Yugoslav states, and international institutions such as the EU, who accepted the accession of states based on an ethno-national definition of citizenship and promoted the mosaic logic  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"sdx9SxxT","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Malkki 1992)","plainCitation":"(Malkki 1992)"},"citationItems":[{"id":209,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/KTA6JT7H"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/KTA6JT7H"],"itemData":{"id":209,"type":"article-journal","title":"National geographic: the rooting of peoples and the territorialization of national identity among scholars and refugees","container-title":"Cultural anthropology","page":"2444","volume":"7","issue":"1","shortTitle":"National geographic","author":[{"family":"Malkki","given":"L."}],"issued":{"year":1992},"page-first":"2444"}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Malkki 1992) of a world of bounded cultures happily coexisting (see  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1rvi70snse","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (\\uc0\\u381{}i\\uc0\\u382{}ek 1997)}","plainCitation":"(}i~ek 1997)"},"citationItems":[{"id":274,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/SRQIX4Q2"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/SRQIX4Q2"],"itemData":{"id":274,"type":"book","title":"Multiculturalism, or, the cultural logic of multinational capitalism","publisher":"New Left Review","author":[{"family":"}i~ek","given":"S."}],"issued":{"year":1997}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} }i~ek 1997). Given its widespread prevalence in both social anthropological traditions and widely differing state contexts in which liberal or Marxist ideas were circulating, it is also worth looking at some aspects of the history of the term in more depth. Culture in the Anglo-American anthropological tradition The term 'culture', traced back to Herder and Volk romanticism in Kupers  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1ln0gbqab6","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kuper 1999)","plainCitation":"(Kuper 1999)"},"citationItems":[{"id":304,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/UHZF77NR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/UHZF77NR"],"itemData":{"id":304,"type":"book","title":"Culture: The Anthropologists' Account","publisher":"Harvard University Press","number-of-pages":"310","ISBN":"0674179579","shortTitle":"Culture","author":[{"family":"Kuper","given":"Adam"}],"issued":{"year":1999,"month":5,"day":5}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (1999) genealogy, was first used in a distinctively anthropological sense by (Tyler [1871] cited in  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"t7f29cnng","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kuper 1999, p.56)","plainCitation":"(Kuper 1999, p.56)","dontUpdate":true},"citationItems":[{"id":304,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/UHZF77NR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/UHZF77NR"],"itemData":{"id":304,"type":"book","title":"Culture: The Anthropologists' Account","publisher":"Harvard University Press","number-of-pages":"310","ISBN":"0674179579","shortTitle":"Culture","author":[{"family":"Kuper","given":"Adam"}],"issued":{"year":1999,"month":5,"day":5}},"locator":"56","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} Kuper 1999, p.56) to describe that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. This contrasted with another important use of the term in the sense of 'high culture', which I also frequently came across when conducting fieldwork, phrased as kultura, to describe works of art, literature, film and so forth which were produced and valued highly by groups of people. Indeed, the adjective kulturan also designated 'culturedness' understood as politeness and etiquette and is key to understanding processes of distinction in the postYugoslav region. Kultura may designate a subset of the anthropological use of the term culture, but the anthropological sense is much wider and more holistic in definition. Furthermore, the presence of kultura does not necessarily presuppose the existence of culture in Tylers sense; collections of notable works may be referred to without reference to Tylers sense of the term culture, in the style of, for example, Bourdieus  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"hpu68jjvt","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Pierre Bourdieu 1986)","plainCitation":"(Pierre Bourdieu 1986)","dontUpdate":true},"citationItems":[{"id":74,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/96PS9S6V"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/96PS9S6V"],"itemData":{"id":74,"type":"book","title":"Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste","publisher":"Routledge","number-of-pages":"632","edition":"New Ed","ISBN":"0415045460","shortTitle":"Distinction","author":[{"family":"Bourdieu","given":"Pierre"}],"issued":{"year":1986,"month":12,"day":11}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (1986) analysis in Distinction. The anthropological sense which Tyler used gained popular currency in Anglo-American social/cultural anthropology via Franz Boas. This view entailed the belief that: Every people expressed through its culture a distinctive Volksgeist. This was the approach that Franz Boas brought from Berlin to Columbia University at the turn of the century. Through his influence it became institutionalised in American cultural anthropology, the dominant school in twentieth-century anthropology  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2ospq932nd","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kuper 1999, 539)","plainCitation":"(Kuper 1999, 539)"},"citationItems":[{"id":304,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/UHZF77NR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/UHZF77NR"],"itemData":{"id":304,"type":"book","title":"Culture: The Anthropologists' Account","publisher":"Harvard University Press","number-of-pages":"310","ISBN":"0674179579","shortTitle":"Culture","author":[{"family":"Kuper","given":"Adam"}],"issued":{"year":1999,"month":5,"day":5}},"locator":"539","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kuper 1999, 539). Boas embrace of a culturalist approach took place in a context in which Aryan race theory was in the ascendant throughout Europe, and his advocacy of culturalism was an explicit rejection of what he viewed as a dangerous biological racism  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"4req1i5cn","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Sandall 2000, 54)","plainCitation":"(Sandall 2000, 54)"},"citationItems":[{"id":296,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/TUSFDSKM"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/TUSFDSKM"],"itemData":{"id":296,"type":"book","title":"The Culture Cult: Designer Tribalism Ond Other Essays","publisher":"Perseus","number-of-pages":"228","ISBN":"0813338638","shortTitle":"The Culture Cult","author":[{"family":"Sandall","given":"Roger"}],"issued":{"year":2000,"month":11,"day":17}},"locator":"54","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Sandall 2000, 54). However, following the horrible conclusions of the Second World War, culturalist understandings came to assume increased importance in the articulation of nationalisms given the unpopularity of Aryan race theory at that time, both in European academic circles and popular discourse. Kuper argued that, by focusing broadly around the key ideas of 'culture' and identity', culturalist trends produced a line of argument that fe[d] readily into a current political discourse that links identity, culture and politics.  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"13ajbvvbsk","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kuper 1994, 543)","plainCitation":"(Kuper 1994, 543)"},"citationItems":[{"id":155,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/GHJTTHKI"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/GHJTTHKI"],"itemData":{"id":155,"type":"article-journal","title":"Culture, Identity and the Project of a Cosmopolitan Anthropology","container-title":"Man","collection-title":"New Series","page":"537-554","volume":"29","issue":"3","abstract":"There is a curious tendency, particularly marked in American cultural anthropology, to combine elements of the post-modernist programme with a radical political engagement. Though insisting that nothing can be known for certain, and certainly that ethnographers have no independent authority, some argue that nevertheless authentic - and preferredm - native voices may be identified, articulating the genuine sentiments and aspirations of a people. This premiss opens the way for an obvious challenge: if it is true, then only the native can speak for the native. The foreign ethnographer would then be merely an interpreter, a medium. As the study of ethnicity moves to the centre of the anthropological agenda, these assumptions must be urgently questioned. That requires a reassessment of the nature and purpose of ethnography.","DOI":"10.2307/2804342","note":"ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Sep., 1994 / Copyright 1994 Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland","author":[{"family":"Kuper","given":"Adam"}],"issued":{"year":1994},"accessed":{"year":2012,"month":1,"day":20,"season":"14:43:54"},"page-first":"537"},"locator":"543","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kuper 1994, 543). This trend became mainstreamed in later twentieth century USA and Western Europe through the ideology of multiculturalism. Kuper was not the only anthropological critic of the culture concept. The concept was also criticised from the political right in the discipline by advocates of civil society, such as the Australian scholar Sandall who derided the culture cult  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"hgu0vpifo","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Sandall 2000)","plainCitation":"(Sandall 2000)"},"citationItems":[{"id":296,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/TUSFDSKM"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/TUSFDSKM"],"itemData":{"id":296,"type":"book","title":"The Culture Cult: Designer Tribalism Ond Other Essays","publisher":"Perseus","number-of-pages":"228","ISBN":"0813338638","shortTitle":"The Culture Cult","author":[{"family":"Sandall","given":"Roger"}],"issued":{"year":2000,"month":11,"day":17}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Sandall 2000) in anthropology as steeped in German romanticism. Such romanticism, according to Sandall, was best understood as a reaction of inferiority to the global success (on his view) of Anglo-American liberal economics. The anthropologist Rapport, in advocating a post-cultural anthropology, has also criticised the concept from a liberal humanist position  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"TU9dov2I","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Amit and Rapport 2002)","plainCitation":"(Amit and Rapport 2002)"},"citationItems":[{"id":8,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/2DHA7DMN"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/2DHA7DMN"],"itemData":{"id":8,"type":"book","title":"The Trouble with Community: Anthropological Reflections on Movement, Identity and Collectivity","publisher":"Pluto Press","number-of-pages":"192","ISBN":"0745317464","shortTitle":"The Trouble with Community","author":[{"family":"Amit","given":"Vered"},{"family":"Rapport","given":"Nigel"}],"issued":{"year":2002,"month":8,"day":20}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Amit and Rapport 2002). Such a position argues that the concept of culture is unnecessarily collective, that this collectivity generates an unnecessary burden and may be overcome through recognising others as individual humans unmarked by cultural belonging. Other anthropologists such as Gupta and Ferguson made strides in the direction of uprooting the culture concept through examining its relationship with understandings of place in anthropological discourse: The inherently fragmented space assumed in the definition of anthropology as the study of cultures (in the plural) may have been one of the reasons behind the long-standing failure to write anthropology's history as the biography of imperialism. For if one begins with the premise that spaces have always been hierarchically interconnected, instead of naturally disconnected, then cultural and social change becomes not a matter of cultural contact and articulation but one of rethinking difference through connection (Gupta and Ferguson 1992, p.8). They asked: What is 'the culture' of farm workers who spend half a year in Mexico and half a year in the United States? (ibid. : p.7). Gupta & Ferguson continued to use the concept, in a sense similar to the processual definition employed by Clifford, who argued that 'culture' should be retained for its differentiating function while conceiving of collective identity as a hybrid, often discontinuous process  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1sgrhroi34","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Clifford 1988, 10)","plainCitation":"(Clifford 1988, 10)"},"citationItems":[{"id":86,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/9X9RUQ7X"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/9X9RUQ7X"],"itemData":{"id":86,"type":"book","title":"The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-century Ethnography, Literature and Art","publisher":"Harvard University Press","number-of-pages":"386","edition":"First Edition","ISBN":"0674698436","shortTitle":"The Predicament of Culture","author":[{"family":"Clifford","given":"J."}],"issued":{"year":1988,"month":7,"day":1}},"locator":"10","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Clifford 1988, 10). Indeed, despite relatively recent postmodern trends in Anglo-American anthropology which have layered several criticisms against certain aspects of the Romantic tradition, notably critiques of authenticity and of metaphysical speculation as manifest in Kantian 'things in themselves', culture talk has continued. Assuming a depth or reality beneath the world of appearances was derided in postmodern circles as relying on metaphysical assumptions. Nevertheless, Kuper argued that culture talk persisted in a romanticisation of the 'community' or 'ethnic' voice, for: Though lacking independent authority, and without making claims to objective insight, there was a kind of truth to which the ethnographer was nevertheless obliged to bear witness: the natives had to be given their unedited say. This prescription was justified by a political argument against domination, and in favour of democratic expression most explicitly, perhaps, in  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2md66q2qq7","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(George E. Marcus & Fischer 1986)","plainCitation":"(George E. Marcus & Fischer 1986)","dontUpdate":true},"citationItems":[{"id":337,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/Z3EMSASN"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/Z3EMSASN"],"itemData":{"id":337,"type":"book","title":"Anthropology as cultural critique: an experimental moment in the human sciences","publisher":"University of Chicago Press","number-of-pages":"224","abstract":"Using cultural anthropology to analyze debates that reverberate throughout the human sciences, George E. Marcus and Michael M. J. Fischer look closely at cultural anthropology's past accomplishments, its current predicaments, its future direction, and the insights it has to offer other fields of study. The result is a provocative work that is important for scholars interested in a critical approach to social science, art, literature, and history, as well as anthropology. This second edition considers new challenges to the field which have arisen since the book's original publication.","ISBN":"9780226504490","shortTitle":"Anthropology as cultural critique","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Marcus","given":"George E."},{"family":"Fischer","given":"Michael M. J."}],"issued":{"year":1986}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} Marcus & Fischer (1986)  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"OcazZAZK","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kuper 1994, 542)","plainCitation":"(Kuper 1994, 542)"},"citationItems":[{"id":155,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/GHJTTHKI"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/GHJTTHKI"],"itemData":{"id":155,"type":"article-journal","title":"Culture, Identity and the Project of a Cosmopolitan Anthropology","container-title":"Man","collection-title":"New Series","page":"537-554","volume":"29","issue":"3","abstract":"There is a curious tendency, particularly marked in American cultural anthropology, to combine elements of the post-modernist programme with a radical political engagement. Though insisting that nothing can be known for certain, and certainly that ethnographers have no independent authority, some argue that nevertheless authentic - and preferredm - native voices may be identified, articulating the genuine sentiments and aspirations of a people. This premiss opens the way for an obvious challenge: if it is true, then only the native can speak for the native. The foreign ethnographer would then be merely an interpreter, a medium. As the study of ethnicity moves to the centre of the anthropological agenda, these assumptions must be urgently questioned. That requires a reassessment of the nature and purpose of ethnography.","DOI":"10.2307/2804342","note":"ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Sep., 1994 / Copyright 1994 Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland","author":[{"family":"Kuper","given":"Adam"}],"issued":{"year":1994},"accessed":{"year":2012,"month":1,"day":20,"season":"14:43:54"},"page-first":"537"},"locator":"542","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kuper 1994, 542). On this understanding, anthropologists in the Anglo-American tradition often became spokespersons or conduits for a particular voice, or set of voices, which on many occasions had an 'ethnic' connotation. This view, namely that the social universe is made up of a mosaic of discrete yet cross-cutting cultures the English, the Croatian, the Serbian, and also the 'black' community, the 'lesbian' community, the 'scientific community' and so forth constitutes a set of assumptions which continue to form the basis of legitimation for both nationalisms and multiculturalisms. Indeed, the expansion of such culture talk increased in intensity during the postcolonial period which saw the opening of numerous Cultural Studies departments, especially in the USA and UK, in an era which both saw a political focus on promoting, managing and celebrating cultural difference and a massive increase in economic differences between groups, characterised by globalisation. Despite attempts to redefine and reconfigure culture as a dynamic concept ultimately relating to the production of difference, I argue that the Herderian sense of an organic, perhaps spiritual whole continues to lurk in the background. In my experience, anthropologists often continue to refer to cultures they attribute to the American context, the Serbian context and so forth, rather than to cultural difference alone. Crucially, referring to an American or Serbian context potentially conflates state and nation, and frequently reifies a bounded whole when that context is understood as cultural. Additionally, arguments which mobilised culture in order to explain social facts often, but not always, downplayed the role of history as an explanatory factor shaping social change. Mary Douglas' ahistorical structuralist approach in which she conceived cultures as sets of principles and values founded in particular institutional forms  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1bg35vc121","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(M. Douglas 2003, p.1357)","plainCitation":"(M. Douglas 2003, p.1357)","dontUpdate":true},"citationItems":[{"id":24,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/45QI55TD"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/45QI55TD"],"itemData":{"id":24,"type":"article-journal","title":"Being Fair to Hierarchists","container-title":"University of Pennsylvania Law Review","page":"1349-1370","volume":"151","issue":"4","DOI":"10.2307/3312933","note":"ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Apr., 2003 / Copyright 2003 The University of Pennsylvania Law Review","author":[{"family":"Douglas","given":"Mary"}],"issued":{"year":2003,"month":4,"day":1},"accessed":{"year":2012,"month":1,"day":20,"season":"15:13:15"},"page-first":"1349"},"locator":"1357","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (2003, p.1357) is a prime example. The lack of attention such approaches paid to history was of particular concern for Marxist anthropologists, some of whom argued vociferously against the mainstreaming of culturalist trends in US anthropology (see  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"9qthOOo2","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Gregory 2007)","plainCitation":"(Gregory 2007)"},"citationItems":[{"id":133,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/ECSUUJT7"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/ECSUUJT7"],"itemData":{"id":133,"type":"book","title":"Savage Money","publisher":"Taylor & Francis","number-of-pages":"354","edition":"1","author":[{"family":"Gregory","given":"Chris"}],"issued":{"year":2007,"month":3,"day":14}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} Gregory 2007). The issue was well-stated by  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"lel2c81sk","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Fabian 2002)","plainCitation":"(Fabian 2002)"},"citationItems":[{"id":143,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/FGZEU3GQ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/FGZEU3GQ"],"itemData":{"id":143,"type":"book","title":"Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object","publisher":"Columbia University Press","number-of-pages":"252","edition":"New Ed","ISBN":"0231125771","shortTitle":"Time and the Other","author":[{"family":"Fabian","given":"Johannes"}],"issued":{"year":2002,"month":4,"day":15}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} Fabian (2002), who argued that the use of the present tense in ethnographic writing often served to situate the narratives of the communities with which anthropologists engaged, 'outside' of the history of the West. As Fabian described, the present tense freezes a society at the time of observation; at worst, it contains assumptions about the repetitiveness, predictability, and conservatism of primitives (ibid.: p.81). Yet anthropologists who chose to pay attention to the role of history in effecting social change still often made culturalist assumptions. Examples include dialectical Marxist or Hegelian approaches whereby ethnic groupings or communities were understood as snapshots of a moving society at a point in time. Miller's discussion of Coca-Cola in Trinidad, which  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"5zhwXmOJ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Narotzky 1997, p.109)","plainCitation":"(Narotzky 1997, p.109)","dontUpdate":true},"citationItems":[{"id":5,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/28M8EPJD"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/28M8EPJD"],"itemData":{"id":5,"type":"book","title":"New Directions in Economic Anthropology","publisher":"Pluto Press","number-of-pages":"264","ISBN":"0745307183","author":[{"family":"Narotzky","given":"Susana"}],"issued":{"year":1997,"month":4,"day":20}},"locator":"109","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} Narotzky (1997, p.109) described as Hegel inspired, is one such example. Miller described the local Trinidadian contextualisations of global capitalist forms  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2f782o81ui","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(D. Miller 2002, p.259)","plainCitation":"(D. Miller 2002, p.259)","dontUpdate":true},"citationItems":[{"id":9,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/2DJP7MU4"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/2DJP7MU4"],"itemData":{"id":9,"type":"article-journal","title":"Coca-Cola: a black sweet drink from Trinidad","container-title":"The material culture reader","page":"245265","shortTitle":"Coca-Cola","author":[{"family":"Miller","given":"D."}],"issued":{"year":2002},"page-first":"245265"},"locator":"259","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}  (Miller 2002, p.259). This led Miller to a culturalist understanding of capitalism as a process of comparative practices, in which consumption appears as a mutually constitutive process of culture and identity creation  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"smJ8dcmm","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Narotzky 1997, 108)","plainCitation":"(Narotzky 1997, 108)"},"citationItems":[{"id":5,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/28M8EPJD"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/28M8EPJD"],"itemData":{"id":5,"type":"book","title":"New Directions in Economic Anthropology","publisher":"Pluto Press","number-of-pages":"264","ISBN":"0745307183","author":[{"family":"Narotzky","given":"Susana"}],"issued":{"year":1997,"month":4,"day":20}},"locator":"108","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Narotzky 1997, 108). This resonated with Appadurais discussion of the commodity form in which he expanded the definition of commodity to encompass many more exchanges typically understood as gift exchange  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1dnal71e63","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Mauss 2001)","plainCitation":"(Mauss 2001)"},"citationItems":[{"id":10,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/2JRM76WT"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/2JRM76WT"],"itemData":{"id":10,"type":"book","title":"The Gift (Routledge Classics): Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies","publisher":"Routledge","number-of-pages":"224","edition":"2","ISBN":"0415267498","shortTitle":"The Gift (Routledge Classics)","author":[{"family":"Mauss","given":"Marcel"}],"issued":{"year":2001,"month":10,"day":11}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Mauss 2001[1923]). In so doing, he moved away from discussion of value (singular) to his concept of regimes of value, which account for the constant transcendence of cultural boundaries by the flow of commodities, where culture is understood as a bounded and localised system of meanings  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2irageh8ku","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Appadurai 1988, 15)","plainCitation":"(Appadurai 1988, 15)"},"citationItems":[{"id":229,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/P65SFXBA"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/P65SFXBA"],"itemData":{"id":229,"type":"book","title":"The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective","publisher":"Cambridge University Press","number-of-pages":"344","edition":"New Ed","ISBN":"0521357268","shortTitle":"The Social Life of Things","editor":[{"family":"Appadurai","given":"Arjun"}],"issued":{"year":1988,"month":1,"day":29}},"locator":"15","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Appadurai 1988, 15). In other words, culturalist assumptions often persisted even in analyses which focused on flows and processes of movement across cultural boundaries. Finally, Kuper has been criticised by some anthropologists from Central Eastern Europe such as Buchowski  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"45c86bggk","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Buchowski 2004)","plainCitation":"(Buchowski 2004)"},"citationItems":[{"id":99,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/BH5C6NQR"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/BH5C6NQR"],"itemData":{"id":99,"type":"article-journal","title":"Hierarchies of Knowledge in Central-Eastern European Anthropology","container-title":"Anthropology of East Europe Review","page":"5-14","volume":"22","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Buchowski","given":"Michal"}],"issued":{"year":2004},"page-first":"5"}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (2004) for painting a crude picture of the region as the geographical home of the Volk romanticism that influenced Malinowski and ultimately the Boasian tradition. Kuper's misconceptions may have arisen from his lack of knowledge of a vernacular from the region and limited awareness of social and political processes that might have resulted in Volk romanticism having attractive qualities for some people and anthropologists working in the region  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ek4c43b0h","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (Slobodan Naumovi\\uc0\\u263{} 1998)}","plainCitation":"(Slobodan Naumovi 1998)","dontUpdate":true},"citationItems":[{"id":121,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/DBJ5TFZ9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/DBJ5TFZ9"],"itemData":{"id":121,"type":"article-journal","title":"Romanticists or Double Insiders? An Essay on the Origins of Ideologised Discourses in Balkan Ethnology","container-title":"Ethnologia balkanica","page":"101-120","volume":"2","author":[{"family":"Naumovi","given":"Slobodan"}],"issued":{"year":1998},"page-first":"101"}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (see Naumovi 1998). Yet the dominance of this ideology in the Boasian tradition and the blind spot created by that tradition in critiquing nationalism is more difficult to question. Kuper has also been criticised by anthropologists in the Anglo-American tradition who have argued for the continuing relevance of the culture-concept and of culturally relativist approaches in the discipline, notably by  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1aqh9sp84l","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Sahlins 1999)","plainCitation":"(Sahlins 1999)"},"citationItems":[{"id":152,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/G257MRT3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/G257MRT3"],"itemData":{"id":152,"type":"article-journal","title":"Two or Three Things that I Know about Culture","container-title":"The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute","page":"399-421","volume":"5","issue":"3","abstract":"This lecture is mainly about the enduring significance of culture as an anthropological concept and the significance of its endurance among the peoples anthropologists study. It argues against the easy functionalist dismissal of the peoples' claims of cultural distinction (the so-called invention of tradition) and for the continued relevance of such distinction (the inventiveness of tradition). It also argues that the anthropological codgers such as Boas, Linton, et al., far from being guilty of all the bad things people are now saying about them, had ideas about culture that are still pertinent to the understanding of its contemporary forms and processes. But then, they had one advantage over most of us today: they had no paralysing fear of structure.","DOI":"10.2307/2661275","note":"ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Sep., 1999 / Copyright 1999 Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland","author":[{"family":"Sahlins","given":"Marshall"}],"issued":{"year":1999},"accessed":{"year":2012,"month":1,"day":18,"season":"12:12:54"},"page-first":"399"}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} Sahlins (1999). However, Sahlins continued to work inside a set of assumptions namely that there exist peoples (ibid. : p.399) of the world, against which Kuper was arguing. In Sahlins' defence of the culture concept, he attacked what he referred to as a Marxist tendency, most cogently articulated in the text The Invention of Tradition  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"17ba56uiae","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hobsbawm and Ranger 1992)","plainCitation":"(Hobsbawm and Ranger 1992)"},"citationItems":[{"id":233,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/PA7GXP5B"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/PA7GXP5B"],"itemData":{"id":233,"type":"book","title":"The Invention of Tradition","publisher":"Cambridge University Press","number-of-pages":"328","edition":"Canto Ed","ISBN":"0521437733","editor":[{"family":"Hobsbawm","given":"Eric"},{"family":"Ranger","given":"Terence"}],"issued":{"year":1992,"month":7,"day":31}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hobsbawm and Ranger 1992), and which drew an explicit connection between processes of 'celebrating' cultural difference, where timeless cultural images of different societies were presented and displayed, and the increased emphasis on commercialism and alongside other social changes under the conditions of economic globalisation, whereby 'natives' were required to repackage and sell difference to tourists. One interesting aspect to this debate from the perspective of academics sympathetic to Leftist ideas is the fact that Marxist approaches have on the one hand offered a route out of reifying culture as an analytic concept, and at the same time, were seen to remarkably accommodate the idea in contexts in which ruling elites made Marxist claims. Marxism and culture: an awkward relation? To recap, so far I have argued that the culture concept implicitly entails the 'ghost of Herder'; the idea of the existence of organic cultural wholes, to which people 'belong', albeit in a variety of different ways. Additionally, I have noted that Marxist anthropologists, more concerned with the common unity of humankind ( ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"xfbcUE9O","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Gregory 2007)","plainCitation":"(Gregory 2007)"},"citationItems":[{"id":133,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/ECSUUJT7"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/ECSUUJT7"],"itemData":{"id":133,"type":"book","title":"Savage Money","publisher":"Taylor & Francis","number-of-pages":"354","edition":"1","author":[{"family":"Gregory","given":"Chris"}],"issued":{"year":2007,"month":3,"day":14}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} Gregory 2007), than with displaying difference, and indeed contributing to the production of new distinctions, would be loathe to focus on the elaboration of cultural difference as an analytic strategy. Nevertheless, such writers have still often assumed the existence of national cultures, the outcome of earlier elaborations of cultural difference on the part of nationalist scholars. This potentially explains the tacit acceptance of the existence of national cultures, in states with Marxist government and in which Marxist concepts were circulating. It echoes Brubaker and Cooper's observation regarding the Soviet Union, where they argued that: Although antinationalist, and of course brutally repressive in all kinds of ways, the Soviet regime was anything but anti-national. Far from ruthlessly suppressing nationhood, the regime went to unprecedented lengths in institutionalizing and codifying it. It carved up Soviet territory into more than fifty putatively autonomous national "homelands," each "belonging" to a particular ethno national group; and it assigned each citizen an ethnic "nationality," which was ascribed at birth on the basis of descent, registered in personal identity documents, recorded in bureaucratic encounters, and used to control access to higher education and employment  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"66u4n6ikc","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (R. Brubaker and Cooper 2000, 25\\uc0\\u8211{}6)}","plainCitation":"(R. Brubaker and Cooper 2000, 256)"},"citationItems":[{"id":247,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/QJXKTXTE"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/QJXKTXTE"],"itemData":{"id":247,"type":"article-journal","title":"Beyond identity","container-title":"Theory and society","page":"147","volume":"29","issue":"1","author":[{"family":"Brubaker","given":"R."},{"family":"Cooper","given":"F."}],"issued":{"year":2000},"page-first":"147"},"locator":"25-6","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (R. Brubaker and Cooper 2000, 256). As earlier mentioned, whilst antinationalism was promoted as an ideal in the SFRY, and indeed, prominent members of the communist party such as Franjo Tuman were criticised for taking a more nationalist approach in some of their writings, the fact that Marxist approaches are not necessary antinational hints that there is a blind spot in the Marxist tradition surrounding critique of the culture concept, a fact which explains the multiculturalist understanding of the peoples of Yugoslavia in a state context making Marxist claims. The documented shift from socialist to Volk nationalist ideology as a political organising principle on the part of some intellectuals during and after the collapse of the SFRY (see ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2didnqn8pi","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Coulson 1993)","plainCitation":"(Coulson 1993)"},"citationItems":[{"id":28,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/4FMPQ6DM"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/4FMPQ6DM"],"itemData":{"id":28,"type":"article-journal","title":"Looking behind the violent break-up of Yugoslavia","container-title":"Feminist Review","page":"86101","issue":"45","author":[{"family":"Coulson","given":"M."}],"issued":{"year":1993},"page-first":"86101"}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}  Coulson 1993 for the case of the Praxis group) is an example of this. In short, Marxist approaches in sociology and anthropology can be roughly divided into two camps; one which assumes the existence of 'cultures' as an analytic and not simply ethnographic reality, and another which does not. For Culture The sociologist Raymond Williams famously advocated the concept of working class culture  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2lhjdtf2aq","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Williams 1957)","plainCitation":"(Williams 1957)"},"citationItems":[{"id":54,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/7CEFKNN9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/7CEFKNN9"],"itemData":{"id":54,"type":"article-journal","title":"Working class culture","container-title":"Universities and Left Review","page":"312","volume":"2","issue":"1","author":[{"family":"Williams","given":"R."}],"issued":{"year":1957},"page-first":"312"}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Williams 1957) which he discussed, amongst others, in terms of a way of life. Such a definition could provide an important source of solidarity amongst members of the working class.  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"TPkDF8Qe","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(McGuigan & Mcguigan 1992)","plainCitation":"(McGuigan & Mcguigan 1992)","dontUpdate":true},"citationItems":[{"id":263,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/S7WX7XXD"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/S7WX7XXD"],"itemData":{"id":263,"type":"book","title":"Cultural Populism","publisher":"Routledge","number-of-pages":"304","edition":"1","ISBN":"0415062950","author":[{"family":"McGuigan","given":"Jim"},{"family":"Mcguigan","given":"Dr Jim"}],"issued":{"year":1992,"month":9,"day":3}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} McGuigan (1992) entered the debate describing himself as a sympathetic critic of what he termed cultural populism; the tendency to take the culture, symbolic life and practices of ordinary people seriously, with particular reference to the Birmingham school of cultural studies, acknowledging the origins of this in Herders Volk romanticism (ibid. : p.10). In particular, orthodox Marxist approaches which made base/superstructure distinctions and then focused on superstructure, understanding cultural as part of superstructure and the base as causally producing it, rather than the dialectic production of both, were also prone to make culturalist assumptions, yet without animating culture as a causal agent. One attraction to such approaches perhaps lies in an understanding of culture as offering particular forms of local solidarity in the face of a bourgeoisie promoting increasing individuation. This relates to the American sociologist Calhouns famous argument with Brubaker in which they debated precisely this point; Calhoun taking issue with proponents of liberal cosmopolitan arguments.  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"r1Szsbrw","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Calhoun 2003, 532)","plainCitation":"(Calhoun 2003, 532)"},"citationItems":[{"id":211,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/KWDGU8B7"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/KWDGU8B7"],"itemData":{"id":211,"type":"article-journal","title":"Belonging'in the cosmopolitan imaginary","container-title":"ETHNICITIES-LONDON-","page":"531552","volume":"3","author":[{"family":"Calhoun","given":"C."}],"issued":{"year":2003},"page-first":"531552"},"locator":"532","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} Calhoun (2003, 532) argued that, an approach that starts with individuals and treats culture as contingent cannot do justice to the legitimate claims made on behalf of communities, and the reasons why thick attachments to particular solidarities still matter whether in the forms of nations, ethnicities, local communities, or religions. Brubaker replied as follows: Participants may well represent such conflicts in groupist or even primordialist terms. They may well cast ethnic groups, races, or nations as the protagonists the heroes and martyrs of such struggles. This is entirely understandable, and doing so can provide an important resource in social and political struggles. But this does not mean analysts should do the same. As a social process, reification is central to the practice of politicized ethnicity, as indeed to other forms of politics. Reifying groups is what ethnopolitical entrepreneurs (like other political entrepreneurs) are in the business of doing.  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"CWA80KEW","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Rogers Brubaker 2003, 554)","plainCitation":"(Rogers Brubaker 2003, 554)"},"citationItems":[{"id":188,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/IIGFP8N7"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/IIGFP8N7"],"itemData":{"id":188,"type":"article-journal","title":"Neither Individualism nor Groupism","container-title":"Ethnicities","page":"553 -557","volume":"3","issue":"4","DOI":"10.1177/1468796803003004006","author":[{"family":"Brubaker","given":"Rogers"}],"issued":{"year":2003,"month":12,"day":1},"accessed":{"year":2012,"month":1,"day":21,"season":"08:55:26"},"page-first":"553"},"locator":"554","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Brubaker 2003, 554) Whilst such solidarities are experienced as very real by participants, the question is whether sociologists and anthropologists ought to accept the categories of analysis substantively, or explore their everyday pervasiveness as a social fact to be explained, exercising what Ricoeur referred to as a 'hermeneutics of suspicion'  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ano4Mq96","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ricoeur 2005)","plainCitation":"(Ricoeur 2005)"},"citationItems":[{"id":659,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/KB5XAS32"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/KB5XAS32"],"itemData":{"id":659,"type":"book","title":"The EPZ Conflict of Interpretations","publisher":"Continuum","URL":"http://www.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=kFAXodqg6DwC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=ricoeur+hermeneutics+of+suspicion&ots=4FVMvJvSor&sig=basGXWsmLwHuP2hePTumusZusHY","author":[{"family":"Ricoeur","given":"P."}],"issued":{"year":2005},"accessed":{"year":2012,"month":9,"day":21}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ricoeur 2005). The tacit acceptance by some Marxist theorists such as the above, of the existence of substantive cultural totalities, whether they are experienced as 'working class culture' or in national or ethnic categories leads to their deserving the name, cultural populism, which McGuigan (1992) , as earlier mentioned, ascribed to them. Against Culture In his study, McGuigan (1992) also described the work of several Marxist writers who have been critical of the culturalist assumptions inherent in the idea of cultural populism. For instance, he noted that for Laclau & Mouffe, populism is not inherent in the movement, nor in the ideology, but in the articulation of non-class contradictions into political discourses originating in class contradictions. (cited in McGuigan 1992. : pp.15-16). Other anthropologists writing in a Marxist tradition, such as Wolf, have also been highly critical of the use of terms such as culture, arguing as Brubaker suggested in the above quote, that the ethnographic realities of cultures and ethnicities need not, and indeed ought not be reified by analysts. Wolf argued that: Concepts like 'nation', 'society' and 'culture' name bits and threaten to turn names into things. Only by understanding these names as bundles of relationships, and by placing them back into the field from which they were abstracted, can we hope to avoid misleading inferences and increase our share of understanding  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1es070lr7f","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Wolf 2010, p.3)","plainCitation":"(Wolf 2010, p.3)","dontUpdate":true},"citationItems":[{"id":69,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/8JK9RBQT"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/8JK9RBQT"],"itemData":{"id":69,"type":"book","title":"Europe and the People without History","publisher":"University of California Press","number-of-pages":"534","edition":"2nd Revised edition","ISBN":"0520268180","author":[{"family":"Wolf","given":"Eric"}],"issued":{"year":2010,"month":11,"day":5}},"locator":"3","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Wolf 2010[1982], p.3). The most famous Marxist academic to challenge such approaches however, is perhaps Hobsbawme and his famous concept of invented traditions  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"FGX92SN8","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hobsbawm and Ranger 1992)","plainCitation":"(Hobsbawm and Ranger 1992)"},"citationItems":[{"id":233,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/PA7GXP5B"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/PA7GXP5B"],"itemData":{"id":233,"type":"book","title":"The Invention of Tradition","publisher":"Cambridge University Press","number-of-pages":"328","edition":"Canto Ed","ISBN":"0521437733","editor":[{"family":"Hobsbawm","given":"Eric"},{"family":"Ranger","given":"Terence"}],"issued":{"year":1992,"month":7,"day":31}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hobsbawm and Ranger 1992). For Hobsbawme, invented traditions refer to: A set of practices, normally governed by overtly or tacitly accepted rules and of a ritual or symbolic nature, which seek to inculcate certain values and norms of behaviour by repetition, which automatically implies continuity with the past.  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ATX37Rsd","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hobsbawm and Ranger 1992, 1)","plainCitation":"(Hobsbawm and Ranger 1992, 1)"},"citationItems":[{"id":233,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/PA7GXP5B"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/PA7GXP5B"],"itemData":{"id":233,"type":"book","title":"The Invention of Tradition","publisher":"Cambridge University Press","number-of-pages":"328","edition":"Canto Ed","ISBN":"0521437733","editor":[{"family":"Hobsbawm","given":"Eric"},{"family":"Ranger","given":"Terence"}],"issued":{"year":1992,"month":7,"day":31}},"locator":"1","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hobsbawm and Ranger 1992, 1) Hobsbawme takes care to distinguish traditions from customs, and takes issue with a particularly static definition of tradition, targeted specifically at images of rituals, ceremonies, activities and objects which give the impression of changing little over time, a phenomenon he argues constitutes a sociological problem: - in the context of a rapidly changing modern world, why do many people experience an apparent need to keep certain things unchanging and invariant? Both Wolf and Hobsbawme suggest that anthropologists and sociologists ought not take such rituals, ceremonies and traditions considered timeless at face value, but ought to understand them as bundles of relationships in need of explaining, with a political meaning frequently captured in the acts of producing rituals as fictitiously timeless: Students of peasant movements know that a villages claim to some common land or right by custom from time immemorial often expresses not a historical fact, but the balance of forces in the constant struggle of village against lords or against other villages.  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"J93ZzXTm","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hobsbawm and Ranger 1992, 2)","plainCitation":"(Hobsbawm and Ranger 1992, 2)"},"citationItems":[{"id":233,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/PA7GXP5B"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/PA7GXP5B"],"itemData":{"id":233,"type":"book","title":"The Invention of Tradition","publisher":"Cambridge University Press","number-of-pages":"328","edition":"Canto Ed","ISBN":"0521437733","editor":[{"family":"Hobsbawm","given":"Eric"},{"family":"Ranger","given":"Terence"}],"issued":{"year":1992,"month":7,"day":31}},"locator":"2","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hobsbawm and Ranger 1992, 2) Critics, and notably Sahlins as earlier mentioned, have taken issue with the incessant placing of a political meaning on acts which they would simply accept as referring to aspects of a cultural tradition, which do not always necessitate an instrumentalist understanding. As Sahlins commented: This is perhaps the main criticism of contemporary culture-talk: it is really instrumental, an ideological smokescreen of more fundamental interests, principally power and greed - practical functions, nota bene, that have the added persuasive virtues of being universal, self-explanatory and morally reprehensible  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2oaoqt0qbc","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Sahlins 1999, 403)","plainCitation":"(Sahlins 1999, 403)"},"citationItems":[{"id":152,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/G257MRT3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/G257MRT3"],"itemData":{"id":152,"type":"article-journal","title":"Two or Three Things that I Know about Culture","container-title":"The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute","page":"399-421","volume":"5","issue":"3","abstract":"This lecture is mainly about the enduring significance of culture as an anthropological concept and the significance of its endurance among the peoples anthropologists study. It argues against the easy functionalist dismissal of the peoples' claims of cultural distinction (the so-called invention of tradition) and for the continued relevance of such distinction (the inventiveness of tradition). It also argues that the anthropological codgers such as Boas, Linton, et al., far from being guilty of all the bad things people are now saying about them, had ideas about culture that are still pertinent to the understanding of its contemporary forms and processes. But then, they had one advantage over most of us today: they had no paralysing fear of structure.","DOI":"10.2307/2661275","note":"ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Sep., 1999 / Copyright 1999 Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland","author":[{"family":"Sahlins","given":"Marshall"}],"issued":{"year":1999},"accessed":{"year":2012,"month":1,"day":18,"season":"12:12:54"},"page-first":"399"},"locator":"403","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Sahlins 1999, 403). Reclaiming tradition Whilst I disagree with Sahlins defence of the main tenets of the Anglo-American anthropological tradition, I am sympathetic to his criticism of the politicisation Hobsbawme advocates, which may be appropriate to some contexts but not others. There is an extent to which the authors talk past one another however, as Sahlins understanding of tradition is much more dynamic suggesting a carrying across; a movement, than Hobsbawmes static definition of tradition (which he contrasts with customs), which appears to be squared more at proponents of nationalist images, and more generally, arguments that assign an authority to institutions due to a perceived, long historical legacy; an attribution which from a dialectically materialist perspective, falsely represents what is a dynamically changing social world creating constant new possibilities. This dynamism is also expressed in the etymology of the word tradition, a term derived from the Latin 'trans dare', which literally means 'giving across', which, besides conveying a sense of handing something down, also connotes a process of movement and transmission. In contrast, the term 'culture', however, has a genealogy focused much more closely around cultivation and horticulture, evoking organic metaphors of growing and breeding and equally of roots, which are clearly much closer to the definitions of a (spiritual) whole which emerged in the Volk Romantic tradition, and which in turn, influenced the Anglo-American anthropological tradition via Boas. I share Sahlins enthusiasm for what he described as the inventiveness of tradition (ibid.: p.408), in his broader, more dynamic use of the term. Traditions produce new and dynamic perspectives on the world. Yet there is a clear leap from the concept of tradition, which as earlier mentioned, genealogically evokes a sense of giving something across, of transmitting something, to that something being the continuation of some kind of organic, perhaps spiritual whole, or a people. The slippage in Sahlins usage here perhaps reflects the dominance of regimes of private property and a particular politics of difference in the USA which has forced other traditions to have to formulate their claims in a reified culturalist mode in order to have a voice  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1t5j9p74mr","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Roseberry 1994)","plainCitation":"(Roseberry 1994)"},"citationItems":[{"id":256,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/RH6J4G44"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/RH6J4G44"],"itemData":{"id":256,"type":"chapter","title":"Hegemony and the Language of Contention","page":"355-366","author":[{"family":"Roseberry","given":"William"}],"issued":{"year":1994},"page-first":"355"}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (see Roseberry 1994). As such, I argue that it makes sense to talk about different traditions, and indeed different anthropological traditions, as I have in this article. The problem rather lies in the reification of social wholes on the basis of these different traditions, and furthermore the assertion of radical cultural differences between such reified domains, and associated cultural relativism. For in focusing on difference, we contribute to its consolidation and further production. Whilst such an approach would claim that any kind of humanism is in some sense a Western cultural perspective, one can equally argue that the radical differences they presume exist are just as deeply caught up in the history of the West, taking their lead instead from cultural strands of Volk Romanticism. The reification of traditions as culture furthermore creates a space for the production of hierarchies between cultures and the dehumanisation of cultural others associated with war. Whilst the debates surrounding the culture concept are well-trodden, they are worth returning to on a regular basis, particularly in light of recent historical events in Europe and the continued prevalence of the concept as important in the lives of many people with whom we, as anthropologists and sociologists, continue to work, and attempt to understand. Bibliography  ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Amit, Vered, and Nigel Rapport. 2002. The Trouble with Community: Anthropological Reflections on Movement, Identity and Collectivity. Pluto Press. Appadurai, Arjun, ed. 1988. The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective. New Ed. Cambridge University Press. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1986. Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. New Ed. Routledge. Brubaker, R., and F. Cooper. 2000. Beyond identity. Theory and society 29 (1): 147. Brubaker, Rogers. 2003. Neither Individualism nor Groupism. 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The outbreak of nationalism on former Yugoslav Territory: a historical perspective on the problem of supranational identity. Nations and Nationalism 4 (3): 409422. Gregory, Chris. 2007. Savage Money. 1st ed. Taylor & Francis. Heidegger, Martin. 1978. Being and Time. New Ed. Wiley-Blackwell. Hobsbawm, Eric, and Terence Ranger, eds. 1992. The Invention of Tradition. Canto Ed. Cambridge University Press. Kuper, Adam. 1994. Culture, Identity and the Project of a Cosmopolitan Anthropology. Man 29 (3). New Series: 537554. doi:10.2307/2804342. . 1999. Culture: The Anthropologists Account. Harvard University Press. Malkki, L. 1992. National geographic: the rooting of peoples and the territorialization of national identity among scholars and refugees. Cultural anthropology 7 (1): 2444. Marcus, George E., and Michael M. J. Fischer. 1986. Anthropology as Cultural Critique: An Experimental Moment in the Human Sciences. University of Chicago Press. Mauss, Marcel. 2001. 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The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 5 (3): 399 421. doi:10.2307/2661275. Sandall, Roger. 2000. The Culture Cult: Designer Tribalism Ond Other Essays. Perseus. Simi, Marina. 2009.   Exit to Europe : state, travel, popular music and  normal life in a Serbian town . Manchester: University of Manchester. Todorova, Maria. 2009. Imagining the Balkans. Updated ed. OUP USA. Ugreai, Dubravka. 1999. The Culture Of Lies. New ed. Phoenix. Williams, R. 1957.  Working class culture. Universities and Left Review 2 (1): 31 2. Wolf, Eric. 2010. Europe and the People without History. 2nd Revised ed. University of California Press. }i~ek, S. 1997. Multiculturalism, or, the cultural logic of multinational capitalism. New Left Review.   Many thanks to Ainhoa Montoya, arna Brkovi, Marina Simi and Stef Jansen for comments on various versions of this paper. A colleague from the UK whom I met in Belgrade whilst attending language classes, who lived there throughout the nineties was very highly regarded by many due to the fact that he had been there.  The use of the first person plural by no means always denoted a national grouping. In fact, one interesting ethnographic strategy I pursued was following the implicit referents of first person plurals. 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<<a<{<<<;=`=>>`>>>3?r????.@|@AA*BBBcBBCCnDD>FhFFFlGGG.HH:I`IbIdIfIķhkghR=^JmH sH hkghiC^JmH sH jhkU^JmH sH h:=Zh:=ZCJOJQJ^J"h:=Zh:=Z6CJOJQJ]^JG::;;2<<0=|=,>>H???@AQB,CCBDDFFGGH`IdI$dh-DM a$gdkg0gd:=ZdIfIhI1JJK9{Mp dgd0tgdgd%gdJgd2gd 3gdP $dh-DM a$gdkgfIhIjIlI0J1J2JJJJJKKLҿ~q^QOQ>3h6h6CJaJ!jh6h60JCJUaJUh`hfCJ^JaJ%jh`hf0JCJU^JaJhh 3CJ^JaJ%jhh 30JCJU^JaJ-hGVhP B*CJOJQJaJmH phsH hP CJ^JaJhhP CJ^JaJ%jhhP 0JCJU^JaJh{h{mHsHh{mHsHh{jh{0JUhkghXi^JmH sH  and dances and not fairytales. I made this mistake whilst enthusiastically anticipating the folklore classes delivered as part of the Croatian language school I attended.  From hereon, when I refer to Volk romanticism, I am referring to Herder's understanding of cultures as bounded, organic, spiritual wholes. It is typically referred to as social anthropology in the UK, in a tradition emphasising the social relation, and cultural anthropology in the USA, with a greater focus on the concepts of culture and identity/difference. I use the term Anglo-American tradition as the American focus on culture is also popular in the UK. This is key to  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1sb3bvm2ro","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Derrida 1998)","plainCitation":"(Derrida 1998)"},"citationItems":[{"id":58,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/7KTDW7A3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/7KTDW7A3"],"itemData":{"id":58,"type":"book","title":"Of Grammatology","publisher":"The Johns Hopkins University Press","number-of-pages":"456","edition":"Corrected Edition","ISBN":"0801858305","author":[{"family":"Derrida","given":"Jacques"}],"translator":[{"family":"Spivak","given":"Gayatri Chakravorty"}],"issued":{"year":1998,"month":1,"day":8}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} Derrida's (1998) revision of Martin Heidegger's  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"19eoi6it85","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Heidegger 1978)","plainCitation":"(Heidegger 1978)"},"citationItems":[{"id":109,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/CI4VH9ES"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/CI4VH9ES"],"itemData":{"id":109,"type":"book","title":"Being and Time","publisher":"Wiley-Blackwell","number-of-pages":"592","edition":"New Ed","ISBN":"0631197702","author":[{"family":"Heidegger","given":"Martin"}],"issued":{"year":1978,"month":10,"day":12}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (1978[1927]) existential project, which he sought to purge of metaphysics.  However, I argue that regularities do occur by virtue of state and international policy which take national groupings as given, although the extent of these regularities may be overstressed by state-builders. I suggest then, that it makes sense to refer to a Serbian (state) context, as the effects of state policy shape peoples everyday interactions. The adjective Serbian here becomes a place holder distinguishing the name of the state from others, rather than having an ethnic connotation. Where reference to a state context in my opinion becomes problematic, is when it is invoked as a natural container in policy formation, for example by seeking to promote cultural changes in Croatian or Serbian society. I have taken time to disentangle this conflation, as it is often unclear in the literature, which often refers to nation-states (hyphenated (sic)).   HYPERLINK "http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/tradition?q=tradition" http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/tradition?q=tradition [accessed on 16/11/12] Sahlins conflates the terms 'culture' and 'tradition'  ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"21k80fr33g","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Sahlins 1999, 403)","plainCitation":"(Sahlins 1999, 403)"},"citationItems":[{"id":152,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/G257MRT3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/881024/items/G257MRT3"],"itemData":{"id":152,"type":"article-journal","title":"Two or Three Things that I Know about Culture","container-title":"The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute","page":"399-421","volume":"5","issue":"3","abstract":"This lecture is mainly about the enduring significance of culture as an anthropological concept and the significance of its endurance among the peoples anthropologists study. It argues against the easy functionalist dismissal of the peoples' claims of cultural distinction (the so-called invention of tradition) and for the continued relevance of such distinction (the inventiveness of tradition). It also argues that the anthropological codgers such as Boas, Linton, et al., far from being guilty of all the bad things people are now saying about them, had ideas about culture that are still pertinent to the understanding of its contemporary forms and processes. But then, they had one advantage over most of us today: they had no paralysing fear of structure.","DOI":"10.2307/2661275","note":"ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Sep., 1999 / Copyright 1999 Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland","author":[{"family":"Sahlins","given":"Marshall"}],"issued":{"year":1999},"accessed":{"year":2012,"month":1,"day":18,"season":"12:12:54"},"page-first":"399"},"locator":"403","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Sahlins 1999, 403), and appears to understand culture as traditions belonging to 'peoples' (ibid. : p.402).     ˠϠ9:{|XYij LMNOq`UFjhSE\hCJUaJhSE\hCJaJ!jhSE\h0JCJUaJ-h`hfB*CJPJ^JaJmH phsH h%OJQJ!jh`h%CJU^JaJh`h%CJ^JaJ%jh`h%0JCJU^JaJh`hfCJ^JaJ%jh`hf0JCJU^JaJh6h66CJaJmHsHh6h6CJaJmHsHWXYZnopqz{ȷȷȤzzzzmhkghXi^JmH sH jh]#Uh]#!jhCOhfCJU^JaJhCOhfCJ^JaJ%jhCOhf0JCJU^JaJ hSE\hCJ^JaJmHsHhSE\hCJaJmHsHhSE\h0JCJ^JaJjhSE\hCJUaJhSE\hCJaJ$dh-DM a$gdkg,1h. 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