ࡱ> rtq` bjbj %m{(%%%%^+^+^+r+:N:N:N8rNNtr+^~OlPPPP)\&O\ [\dQll)$hM-^+_\")\__M%%PP z[i[i[i_Z%P^+P[i_[i[iN)^+CPrO d:NcVǥ0϶0LBGfB`CCB^+ c\I][i]q^&c\c\c\MMhvc\c\c\____r+r+r+"N$r+r+r+Nr+r+r+%%%%%% 1. Conceptual Basis of the Study Term information is often used in everyday communication, in the media, as well as in numerous references. It is usually considered that the speakers using this term are familiar with its actual meaning. However, that is not always the case and this presentation deals with that matter. Information as the phenomenon has numerous implications in communication quantification of information, primary information barriers, information capacities in different media. Basic terms in informatics/computer science are: information as the phenomenon and communication as a process. Understanding the terms based on intuition is well known, but the definition based on scientific knowledge belongs to informatics. Terms information and communication entered the world of science after the publication of the book: The Mathematical Theory of Communication, BTSJ 21, by Shannon, Cl.E. & Weaver, W. (1948). At the same time, information has become relevant term in scientific disciplines dealing with symbolic communication (mathematics, computer science, linguistics, logic, electronic science, librarianship, humanities, arts, social studies, medicine etc.). Owing to its relevance, the term information has gained an interdisciplinary dimension because each discipline has tried, and is still trying, to interpret that complex term. It is undisputable that information is a complex term with numerous and different aspects of biological, physical and social nature. It is therefore not an easy task to understand the term information, or more precisely, to interpret it. Word information originates from Latin: in formare and the original meaning was to put in shape, to give a form to sth, but during the time that meaning has changed. Today, given to the different approaches to the meaning and definition of the term, the situation concerning the interpretation of the meaning is even more confusing. Therefore, there is no unanimous approach concerning the definition, and still less the unanimous generally accepted definition of information. A great number of different definitions confirm the great interest among the scientists in different fields and disciplines. In order to achieve the correctness of interpretation of term information and its meaning, numerous definitions can be found in the existing literature. Many definitions, which are being counted in hundreds, can be classified in two general groups: 1.1 Transcendental approach First group of definitions make those that consider information as the category which is away from human nature transcendental approach. In this context information is defined taking into consideration three different aspects: Cosmological aspect, Information and reflection (philosophical approach), Information and ambiguity. 1.2 Cosmological aspect The first approach is a cosmological one. According to this approach, information is regarded as the third cosmic dimension. According to the classic definition, the cosmos is defined as the junction of the matter and energy. According to A. J. Lerner: It has to cede its place to the idea of world which is made of three components: energy, matter and information, because without the exchange of information, the organized systems are not possible. Modern approach to defining cosmos includes the term information as the third entity, leading to the conclusion that the information represents a separate category, which is neither the matter nor the energy. 1.3 Information and reflection (Philosophical approach) The second approach of the first group of information definitions is from the philosophical point of view, it concerns the relationship between man and nature, and is based on the theory of reflection. According to this approach, information is everything that implies the subjective conscious model of the objective reality. Hence, the more different elements there are in reality, the more of information is present. Information is just one aspect, one side of the reflection the reflected diversity, therefore, the category of reflection is more comprising than the term information. 1.4 Information and ambiguity The third approach, from the transcendental point of view, is based on regarding the information in terms of ambiguity. Hence, for example, information is opposed to uncertainty and it is, usually, connected with a new, previously unknown phenomena and facts. 1.5 Information and the human being The second group of information definitions consists of those which define term information in relation to the human being. There are three approaches: information as the news, information and learning, information and activity. 1.6 Information as the news The first approach refers to the definitions based on interactions of information and the human being. Based on this, information is regarded as a phenomenon typical for human race. Namely, there is no information without the human being. For example, the following definitions confirm that: Human beings are information creators and deliverers. Information must, above all, have sense, it must be the carrier of the meaning. Information is everything that provides new data or new explanations concerning facts or events which were previously unknown. Information is the part of the news that has the value of the news for the recipient and which helps the recipient to perform his/her tasks in an improved way. 1.7 Information and learning The second approach includes the definitions that regard the information from the learning point of view. This can be noticed from the following definition: Information is the knowledge that becomes available via the means of communication, and posses information value. The next definition also talks about the relation between information and knowledge: Information can be understood as the result of objective reality operation, that is outside the cognition subject. From the dynamic and communication point of view, it is usually stated that information is communicating knowledge, that is, about its existence, communicated by the objective reality itself, or what is, via sender communicated to the receiver. In the Information Theory, the concept of knowledge is not unlimited, it is more an indication of the need of what would be useful for a receiver to know. 1.8 Information and activity The third approach regards information from the point of view of its usefulness. Based on this, the information is also defined as: the content of our exchange with the community, while attempting to adapt to it and influence it. The process of receiving and using the information is the process of our adaptation to the community and our attempt of living productively in that environment. Thus, it can be said that information is conscious or intentional data organization. Above mentioned approaches and definitions show complexity and diversity in understanding and explaining that phenomenon. Each of those approaches is subject to analysis and the evaluation of the correctness of its explanation, but that subject matter will not be dealt with in this paper. 2. Communication Communication in the society, regardless of its kind or shape, comprises many different elements which make it a process or a system. There are numerous definitions regarding the term communication. For the purpose of this presentation, some of these definitions will be further explained. More widely used definition is the one according to which communication is the transmission of information, ideas, feelings, knowledge etc., via symbols, words, numerals, sketches etc. (Berelson & Steiner, 1964) Communication is defined as the subtle and ingenious group of processes. It always contains thousands of elements signals, codes, meanings regardless of the message simplicity or the simplicity of its transmission. Human communication is also a group of different processes. It can make use of hundreds of different means words or gestures, it can be transmitted via paper, or it can be in a form of an intimate conversation, it even makes use of mass media and world wide public People communicate whenever they interact with each other. When human beings control each other, they primarily do it by means of communication. Even though the concept of communication is widely used, it has to be pointed out that scholars have not yet reached consensus concerning all its dimensions. During this presentation, this general approach to the communication process will be illustrated and transferred into concrete forms of communication. Human beings are the most important life form that uses the sign communication. Naturally, other living beings also use signs in their communication, but such signs do not have the complexity and detailed elaboration as human speech, writing, art, different technical instruments, or means of communication do. Special science that deals with the study of the essence of human communication is Semiology. Semiology is the study of signs, languages, codes, signalization etc. The whole mankind depends on signs and sign systems, and human mind cannot be separated from the sign functioning, if it cannot be identified with it, states Charles W. Morris in his study FOUNDATIONS OF THE THEORY OF SIGNS. In this book Morris gave basic ideas for the study of information structure. The generally accepted classification of the study of languages considers three aspects, three dimensions of language, i.e. language signs: syntactic aspect, semantic aspect, pragmatic aspect. Each of these aspects deals with the study of separate language code dimensions. SYNTAX deals with relations between the signs. SEMANTIC deals with relations between signs and non-linguistic subjects. PRAGMATIC (introduced by Morris) deals with relations of the signs and human beings as their users. 3. Elements of Information Structure The content of each message is expressed with signs of the appropriate expressive CODE. CODING means transformation of signs from one way of expression that has certain rules into another one, while respecting its rules. Each code has its own sign supply alphabet, numerals. In the typical communication scheme, the chain of communication consists of: emitter content (subject/referee) signs code communication channel receiver. In the analysis of the chain of communication, signs and message transmitter media shall be further analyzed. Each sign, according to Giro, contains several functions. Giro further proposed the classification of signs according to their function: referential, emotive, conative, aesthetic or poetic, phatic, metalinguistic, perceptual (to understand and to feel) and sense. According to the given classification of the sign function, that also make the information structure, it is necessary to have a vast knowledge of the complex sign function. 3.1 Media Media as the means of communication have always been a specific characteristic of civilizations. Today, in modern society, media also plays an important role, and will certainly have that degree of importance in the future. Media mark our informatics era, and therefore are emphasized with reason. Medium implies materialization of signs and background for its transmission. Medium gives specific characteristic to the code, its nature, structure and function, so it is often said that medium is the message. M. Mc Luhan speaks of some general media characteristics, classifying them as hot and cool, according to the information temperature or according to the definition of a picture in a photography. Mc Luhan thinks that the more information elements a message contains, and the more dense the information substance is, hotter the message is, and vice versa. This literally means that the way of presentation of some content could be hot or cool, depending on the media applied in the process of communication. Based on this, the temperature of a message depends on the attention of the receiver who has to interpret the message and attribute it the elements of information that are, according to his point of view, missing. In a hot message, the sense is given by the emitter, while in a cool message the sense is (more or less) attributed by the receiver, thus included in communication. 3.2 Quantifying the information A message is determined by the quantity of information it contains. How to determine the quantity of information contained in a message? Theory of Information helps us find the appropriate answer. The Theory of Information deals with communications starting from data gathering, transmission, processing, storing, as well as with the use of information. The development of the Theory of Information also introduced quantification, i.e., determining the quantity of information the message contains. Entropy represents the measure of the quantity of information, and, to say it in a most simple way, it is the measure of disorganization of a system. The higher the entropy, the less organized is the system, and vice versa. Entropy decreases with the extent of information ectropy. Entropy is calculated according to Shannons Formula :  EMBED Equation.3  where  EMBED Equation.3  and H(x) entropy, p(xi) probability of an event xi, n total number of events. Entropy is expressed in Shannon Units (before that bit binary digit was used), The Behavioristic approach in pragmatic aspects of the Theory of Information is one of more acceptable approaches among those dealing with the problems of the communication processes. According to the Behaviorists, a triple dimension of information is contained in a message: Ii informative contents, If formative (instructional) contents, Im motivational contents. Behavioristic approach in pragmatic aspect of the Theory of Information: Ii informative contents, the message contains the informative character and is attributed the value Ii. If formative (instructional) contents, the content of the message instructs the receiver and is attributed the value If. Im motivational contents, a message may contain the elements that would motivate the receiver and these are attributed the value Im. In a message containing all three dimensions of information (informative, instructional and motivational), but each with different intensity, the informative value of the message instructs what one should do, how he should do it and why (Ackoff, R.L.,1958). In communication, there is always an emitter N1 and a receiver N2. The process of communication is a process in which the emitter transmits messages (knowledge) that change the state of the receiver (information and knowledge transmission). In a hypothetic communicative event, the message could influence the receiver in two ways. In this situation, the state of the receiver could be presented in the following way: the receiver has the option to act in two ways alternative action am1, where m>2. Possible results of the action are marked as bn. In that case the receiver could be in the following states: Pi probability that among the alternatives, the receiver would choose the alternative aj, Eij probability that the chosen option aj would lead to the result bj, Vj relative value of the result j for the receiver, and the receiver is in stable state if: there is at least one possible solution b1 of his behavior, which has a relative value for him/her in the event, there are at least two alternative options of the action a1 and a2 which have unequal positive effects for the result of the action b1. In this case it could be said that the receiver (N2) is in stable state, if he/she wants something and has different options to achieve the goal. Thus is the value of the state of the receiver X (N2) defined as:  EMBED Equation.3  (1) The characteristic the message will contain, depends not only on the message itself and its receiver, but also on the one who models and processes the message. This means that the quantity of information which has influence on the change of the probability of the option Pi of the action ai choice, has the characteristic to inform the receiver of some state. Since there is n different ways of action in an undefined state, the probability of the choice of each action is 1/m, and the probability that the receiver N1 would choose any of the alternative options is Pj. The following model is introduced for this purpose:  EMBED Equation.3  (2) In a determined state, one of Pj equals 1, and the other (m-1) probabilities Pj equal 0. If the relation (2) is applied, the following model could be proposed to show the difference between the determined and undetermined state:  EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3  (3) The model (2) gives the maximal amount of information that could be contained in one state, and the model (3) gives the amount of information the real state contains. The relation between the maximal state of information and the real state of information is shown in the following model:  EMBED Equation.3  (4) The amount of information that one state can contain is shown by the number of binary choices among the alternative options, so that only one action could be chosen. When the relation (4) is multiplied with the maximal amount of information one state may contain, i.e. (n-1) unit, the measure of the quantity of information that one state contains is derived:  EMBED Equation.3 , inbita[InSh] (5) The unit for the quantity of information Ij is Inbit(InSh( and it represents the amount of information that an alternative (binary) option contains. The quantity of the transmitted message that the emitter (N1) transmits to the receiver (N2) equals the subtraction of the quantity of information the receiver possesses immediately before the message is received, and the quantity of information the receiver has immediately after the communication with the emitter. If X(Ii1) describes the preliminary state of the amount of information, then the transmitted amount of information X(Ii1) could be presented with the following model:  EMBED Equation.3  (6) The information that influences the change of Eij has a characteristic of as instruction or an order related to the state it refers to. Instructions refer to the efficiency of the state, and the receiver can influence the results of the state if it has an ability to choose any result. In other words, the instruction assures that the receiver (N2) could be provided with the possibilities missing in the time of action. Hence, the instruction is given a great meaning in communications. The unit for the quantity of the emitters (N1) influence is the unit of instruction hubit (huSh(, and is presented in the following model:  EMBED Equation.3  (7) where I(ai/bj) is the amount of control the emitter has over the action ai in relation to the possible result of the action bj. The amount of the instruction delivered by a message to the state X(If) is presented in the following model:  EMBED Equation.3  (8) When the amount of information has influence on Vj, then the same message is considered to be motivating. Quantifying the amount of motivation is done according to the identical models like in (2), (3) and (4), only instead of m, the models contain n, and instead of Vj, the models contain Pj, so the following model is produced:  EMBED Equation.3 , mobita [moSh] (9) The amount of information considered to be motivating equals I(Xm) (mobit (moSh(), and the following model is used for calculation:  EMBED Equation.3  (10) 4 Communication Technologies Auditive technology of communication is the oldest form of human communication developed parallel with the development of human communities. Characteristics of auditive technologies include: oral communication, myths, rituals and tribal communities. In the era of auditive technology, the pre-historical man had lived in harmony with the environment. He had used his senses to get closer to the aspects of the environment. Auditive media is the determining factor concerning the cognitive and moral values. Visual technology of communication started with the first written/painted signs, and with the press, the new characteristics of communication appeared. Visual technology/communication deals with abstract reasoning and individualism. The need for standardization comes with visual technologies. Languages are formalized and defined in terms of grammatical and orthographic rules. The written word decreases the need for direct interpersonal relations in the exchange of ideas. The world of words is separated from the world of actions. The environment is understood by visual means. Electronic technology of communication exists over 150 years (started with the invention of the telegraph) and it strongly influenced business and market. Stronger influence and application came with the invention and use of computers. Electronic technology and communication are based on audio-visual media like television, simultaneous action of senses and active research. Informatics society of the audio-visual media and interactive communication with the use of computers, bring us back to Mc Luhans point of view, back to the creative, active and research-like relation to the environment, because in communication, all senses are activated. 5 Primary information barriers There are numerous barriers in communication and the following ones are selected as the primary information barriers. perceptive barriers, psychological barriers, social barriers, cultural barriers, semantic barriers, media barriers, physical barriers. Perceptive information barriers include subjective qualities and predispositions for communication. Each subject of the communication process interprets the events in terms of his/her own psychological, cultural and social status. In reality, there are no two persons who feel or percept things in an identical way. Psychological information barriers appear in communication and are based on subjective characteristics of the communicators. Namely, one word or one event may have different meaning for different subjects in communication, which depends on individual way of thinking. Social information barriers appear in communication where communicators are of different social backgrounds. That can be presented in many different ways via conduct, manners, dressing code, vocabulary, religious manifestations etc. Cultural information barriers appear in communication as a consequence of different cultural backgrounds of the communicators. These barriers are especially noticeable when analyzing certain contents, as well as in views and evaluation of certain goals and tasks. Semantic information barriers appear often in communication and are manifested in different interpretations of the written documents, speech, schemes, figures etc., thus, the meaning differs according to the way of interpretation. Vocabulary also plays an important role i.e., the use of standardized language, colloquial speech, dialects etc. Media barriers also appear when different media are used in communication. Each message deliverer has its own characteristics that could distract the communication. Physical information barriers appear in communication during the message transmission, i.e. in the communication channel. In process of communication, there could be physical obstructions present in signal transmission. That is noise in the communication channel which can deform and completely change the contents of a message. 5 Information capacity of communication process When discussing information capacities from the different point of view in communication, the problem of information overload also needs to be taken into consideration. Information overload can appear at both, emitter and receiver, though the accent is put on the latter. The receiver is exposed to the influence of the messages with different contents, and he/she receives them via many different communication media. In the process of communication, the transmitter is less exposed to listening, so his/her information overload is still in a lower degree than receivers. In the process of communication, goals and tasks are realized by means of messages which are aimed at the receiver. The classic question is: What is the amount of messages information the receiver can actually receive? In time-determined communication, the receiver needs to receive certain messages and the subjective information needs to be sorted out as the indication for the action. Informatics has tried, and is still trying, to find the answers to these questions. Communication stresses the importance of the receivers communication overload who, in that case, activates all his/her senses in order to obtain the information. Signals, message carriers, come to the receivers senses. The signals further travel via the peripheral nervous system (PNS) to the central nervous system (CNS) the brain. CNS is the place where the signals are processed. How are the signals processed? We still do not have a complete answer to this question, but the CNS has to recognize the signals and process them. The simultaneous comparison with the memorized signals is also being performed. The obstructions need to be recognized and clearly separated in conscience. CNS not only receives, selects, processes and memorizes the data, but it also combines the memorized data and creates the new ones the information. According to the available references, H. Frank offered the most complete answers concerning the matter. Based on the research of different authors, Frank estimated the capacity of the senses: optical channel up to 107 Sh/sec, acoustic channel up to 1,5 * 106 Sh/sec, tactile channel app. 2 * 105 Sh/sec, olfactory channel app. 13 Sh/sec. The quantity of signals arriving to the consciousness is smaller than the amount of signals arriving to the senses. The phenomenon of jamming is surpassed by selection. This is an important factor concerning the influx of information to the CNS consciousness, and is described as the speed of perception Ca. In each communication, the signal carries some information and the consciousness accepts it and stores it for some time, regardless of intentions to memorize it or not. After the storage (short-term memory), it is either transferred into the long-term memory, or it is completely erased from the memory. The time of information storage in the consciousness is called the duration of presentation Tp. This is an individual characteristic, it depends on the age of the receiver and lasts approximately 10 seconds. However, T represents the maximum value of the duration of presentation, and for communication the real presentation Tr, which is not maximally possible, is more important than the real presentation.  Figure 1. A diagram of presentation, maximal and real References Ackoff, R.L. (1958) Towards a behavioral theory of communication, Management Science, April, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp.218-234 Berelson, B. and Steiner, G.A. (1964) Human Behavior: An Inventory of Scientific Findings, p.712, Harcourt, Brace & World, New York. Frank, F. (1971) Kybernetische Grundlagen der Pdagogik, Kohlhammer Urban-Taschenbuher, Stuttgart. Giro, P. (1975) Semiologija, BIGZ, Beograd. Lerner, A.J. (1970) Principi kibernetike, NIP Tehni ka knjiga Beograd. Mc Luhan, M. (1964) Understanding Media: The Extension of Man, New York. Morris, C.W. (1975) Osnove teorije o znacima BIGZ, Beograd. Nadrljanski, Dj. and Nadrljanski, M. (2000) Obrazovni softver-hipermedijalni sistemi, Univerzitetski ud~benik, Univerzitet u Novom Sadu, a diagram p.85 Shannon, C.E. and Weaver, W. (1949) Mathematical Theory of Communication, Urbana, University Press. Shannon, Cl.E. and Weavera, W. (1948) A Mathematical Theory of Communication, BTSJ 21.      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