ࡱ> ikhmb@bjbjFF =,,,^!!!!""""^1^1^181z2"k 3LV33335v5$5iiiiiii$nR6qi"75577i!!33;j4EEE7n!3"3UiDn E7iEE]l!J"_32 T|)^1? _*gj<k7_qCxqT_,""!!!!`q"`505"E696K555ii""D^1D""^1Srednja energija stvaranja ionskog para za razli ite ionizirajue estice u zraku Ines Krajcar Broni Institut "Ruer Boakovi", Bijeni ka 54, 10000 Zagreb e-mail:  HYPERLINK "mailto:obelic@irb.hr" krajcar@irb.hr UVOD Srednja energija stvaranja ionskog para (W) definirana je kao prosje na energija utroaena na stvaranje jednog para elektron  pozitivni ion nakon ato je upadna ionizirajua estica energije E potpuno zaustavljena u nekom sredstvu, stvorivai pri tome u prosjeku N parova elektron  ion: W(E) = E/N (1) Budui da upadna estica osim u ionizirajuim sudarima s molekulama tvari gubi energiju i u drugim sudarnim procesima, W vrijednost je uvijek vea od energije ionizacije dane tvari. W ovisi o vrsti i energiji upadne estice, te o tvari u kojoj se odvijaju sudarni procesi. Na dovoljno visokim energijama (>10 keV za elektrone, >20 MeV za protone, >10 MeV/amu za te~e ione, amu = atomska jedinica mase) W je gotovo konstantna (ne ovisi o energiji), dok se na ni~im energijama W poveava kako energija upadne estice opada [1, 2]. Ukoliko ionizirajua estica proe kroz apsorber u kojem izgubi samo manji dio energije, umjesto veli ine W koristi se diferencijalna srednja energija w, definirana kao srednja energija utroaena na stvaranje jednog elektron-ion para nakon djelomi nog gubitka energije estice (dE): w = dE/dN (2) Za dovoljno visoke energije upadnih estica W ne ovisi o energiji, te je w = W dobra aproksimacija [1, 2]. Poznavanje W je potrebno pri prera unavanju koli ine naboja sakupljenog u detektoru zra enja u deponiranu energiju, odnosno dozu. Dozimetrijska mjerenja pri radioterapijskim postupcima provode se u ionizacijskim komorama punjenima zrakom, te se izmjerena doza u zraku nakon toga pretvara/prera unava u dozu apsorbiranu u tkivu ili vodi. Detaljan opis postupka mo~e se pronai u preporukama za terapiju protonima i teakim ionima [3, 4]. Poznavanje doze apsorbirane u tkivu/materijalu ima veliku va~nost u prou avanju fizikalnih, kemijskih i bioloakih u inaka zra enja. Nepouzdanost poznavanja W (ili w) izravno utje e na ukupnu nepouzdanost odreivanje apsorbirane doze. U radioterapijskim primjenama zra enja po~eljno je poznavati dozu u tkivu s ukupnom nepouzdanoau od 5% [2, 3]. To zna i da je potrebno pojedine doprinose ukupnoj dozi (W ili w vrijednosti, mo zaustavljanja, i dr.) poznavati s to noau od 2-3%. Podaci o W u literaturi su esto raspraeni u asopisima razli itih znanstvenih podru ja (fizika, dozimetrija, medicinska primjena), a naj eae su vrlo fragmentirani, tj. mjereni su za odreenu vrstu upadnih ionizirajuih estica, za vrlo usko podru je energija i za pojedina ne plinove. U nekoliko preglednih radova pokuaalo se skupiti na jednom mjestu poznate podatke za W (i w) za razne ionizirajue estice u razli itim vrstama materijala [1, 2], meusobno usporediti razli ite izvore podataka, te ustanoviti sustavnost podataka. Takve kompilacije predstavljaju osnovu za daljnje prou avanje W. U ovom radu dat e se pregled srednjih ili preporu enih W vrijednosti za elektrone, protone i teake ione u zraku, i to za energije koje se koriste u radioterapijskim postupcima. W ZA ELEKTRONE U znanstvenoj literaturi se najviae eksperimentalnih podataka za W mo~e nai za elektrone razli itih energija u mnogobrojnim plinovima i plinskim smjesama. Stoga je i vrijednost W za elektrone dovoljno visokih energija (>10 keV) u zraku dobro definirana i iznosi 33,97 0,05 eV [5] za suhi zrak, a ovisnost W o vla~nosti zraka prikazana je u [1, 6]. W ZA PROTONE Energije protona koji se koriste u radioterapiji protonima su iznad 20MeV i u tom podru ju energija odgovarajua veli ina bila bi w, jer protoni gube samo dio energije prolaskom kroz tkivo. Meutim, na tim energijama vrijedi aproksimacija W = w. Dostupne W i w za protone energija >20 MeV analizirane su u radu [7]. Pokazano je da se W mjerene razli itim metodama meusobno dobro sla~u te je preporu ena vrijednost 34,23 eV, 0,4%, za protone energija iznad 20 MeV u suhom zraku. W ZA IONE U radioterapiji teakim ionima koriste se He ioni (tipi ne energije ionskih snopova 250 MeV/amu), C (200  400 MeV/amu), Ne (620 MeV/amu), Si (800 MeV/amu) i Ar ioni (860 MeV/amu). Vrlo se malo podataka za W (ili w) mo~e nai u literaturi za te energije, jer je veina mjerenja provedena na relativno niskim energijama iona (<1 MeV/amu) gdje se opa~aju najvee promjene W s energijom iona [1, 2], a broj podataka na energijama >10 MeV/amu je ograni en. Razvojem novih centara za terapiju teakim ionima, naj eae ugljikovim ionima, ponovno se po ela mjeriti W za ugljikove i druge ione visokih energija [8]. Za ugljikove ione u razli itim plinovima postoji nekoliko serija podataka na relativno niskim energijama [1, 2, 8], a nedavno su proairene novim podacima na visokim energijama [9, 10]. Na Slici 1 prikazani su podaci za W za ugljikove ione energija 1  103 MeV/amu u zraku, te za nekoliko drugih iona (He, N, Ne, Ar ioni). IAEA protokol [3] preporu uje koriatenje iste W za sve vrste iona energija iznad 1 MeV/amu, 34,5 0,5 eV. Uklju enjem novijih eksperimentalnih podataka ne mijenja se srednja vrijednost W za sve ione energija >1 MeV/amu (Tablica 1).  EMBED Origin50.Graph Slika 1. Srednja enerija stvaranja ionskog para (W) za ugljikove ione (%) i ostale teake ione (f&) koji se koriste u radioterapiji. Preporu ena srednja vrijednost (""") prema [3] izra unata je za sve ione energija >1 MeV/amu i usporeena je sa srednjom vrijednoau za ugljikove ione energija >10 MeV/amu (  ).Ograni imo se sad samo na ugljikove ione. Vrijednosti W za C ione u zraku u podru ju energija 3  10 MeV/amu pokazuju raspon od 3,5 eV izmeu najni~e i najviae vrijednosti, ato je znatno viae od objavljenih nepouzdanosti pojedinih mjerenja (izmeu 0,6 i 1,3 eV), a tako niske energije ugljikovih iona ne koriste se u radioterapiji. 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Tablica 1. Srednja vrijednost W za sve teake ione i posebno za ugljikove ione u podru ju energija >1 MeV/amu i >10 MeV/amu; n je broj eksperimentalnih podataka dostupnih u literaturi. W (eV)nW (eV)n>1 MeV/amu>10 MeV/amusvi ioni34,50 1,001334,55 0,847C ioni34,53 1,25634,69 0,863svi ioni [3]34,5 0,5 ZAKLJU AK Srednja energija stvaranja ionskog para, W, za elektrone i protone visokih energija u zraku poznata je s dovoljnom preciznoau kako bi se odredila doza koju primi tkivo u radioterapijskim postupcima unutar zadanih nepouzdanosti. U slu aju primjene visokoenergijskih teakih iona, W nije dovoljno dobro poznata. Rast broja terapijskih centara s primjenom teakih iona, naj eae ugljikovih, u budunosti e sigurno zahtijevati i nova istra~ivanja interakcije teakih iona i tkiva, a to uklju uje i mjerenje W na visokim energijama. ZAHVALA Rad je financiran sredstvima MZOS projekta 098-0982709-2741. LITERATURA International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU). Average Energy Required to Produce an Ion Pair. ICRU Report 31. Washington, DC: ICRU; 1979. Srdo  D, Inokuti M, Krajcar Broni I. Yields of ionization and excitation in irradiated matter (Chapter 8); In: Atomic and Molecular Data for Radiotherapy and Radiation Research, Ed. M. Inokuti, TECDOC-799, IAEA, Vienna, 1995, pp.547-631 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Absorbed Dose Determination in External Beam Radiotherapy: An International Code of Practice for Dosimetry Based on Standards of Absorbed Dose to Water. Technical Reports Series TRS 398. Vienna: IAEA; 2000. International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU). Clinical Proton Dosimetry - Part I: Beam Production, Beam Delivery and Measurement of Absorbed Dose. ICRU Report 59. Washington, DC: ICRU; 1998. Boutillon M, Perroche-Roux AM. Re-evaluation of the W value for electrons in dry air. Phys Med Biol 1987;32:213-219. Niatel MT. Influence de la vapeur d'eau sur l'ionisation de l'air dans le cas d'un chambre a cavit. C.R. Acad.Sci. Paris 1975;B281:361. Jones DTL. The w-value in air for proton therapy beams. Radiat Phys Chem 2006;75:541-550. Krajcar Broni I, Kimura M. Radiation physics and chemistry in heavy-ion cancer therapy. Kem Ind 2007;56:643-654. Rodriguez-Cossio J, Schardt D, Brusasco C, Voss B, Weber U. W-value measurements for carbon ions. GSI Scientific Report 2000,  HYPERLINK "http://www.gsi.de/informationen/wti/library/scientificreport2000/Bio_Ph/27/prueba.pdf" http://www.gsi.de/informationen/wti/library/scientificreport2000/Bio_Ph/27/prueba.pdf Sasaki S, Sanami T, Saito K, Iijima K, Tawara H, Fukumura A, Murakami T. Average energy to produce an ion pair for heavy charged particles in gases measured as a function of particle energy. IAEE Nuclear Science Symposium Conference Record 2005;3:1267-1270. MEAN ENERGY REQUIRED TO FORM AN ION PAIR FOR VARIOUS IONIZING PARTICLES IN AIR Ines Krajcar Broni Ruer Boakovi Institute, Bijeni ka 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia e-mail:  HYPERLINK "mailto:obelic@irb.hr" krajcar@irb.hr The mean energy required to form an ion pair (W value) is defined as the mean energy (expressed in eV) spent by the incident particle of energy E for the formation of a pair of an electron and a positive ion after complete dissipation of the initial energy, W = E/N, where N is the total number of produced electron-ion pairs. For high-energy particles in thin media, when only a fraction of the particle energy (dE) is deposited in a medium, it is necessary to consider the differential w value, w = dE/dN. For sufficiently high incident energy, W value is approximately constant, and w = W is a good approximation. Available data on W or w are often fragmented, dispersed, and missing systematic, but several compilations and reviews, such as ICRU Report 31 and IAEA TECDOC 799, provide a basis for assessing the present knowledge of W values for different charged particles in various gases. Most available data exist for electrons, and therefore the W value for high-energy electrons (>10 keV) in dry air is well defined, 33.97 0.05 eV, and also a dependence on air humidity has been studied. W and w values for high-energy protons (>20 MeV) have been recently carefully analyzed and the value of 34.23 eV, with 0.4%, has been recommended. The existing W or w data for heavy ions used in radiotherapy (He, C, Ne, Si, Ar) are fragmentary and most of them are measured for relatively low energies below 1 MeV/amu where major variations in energy dependence are observed. There is a lack of experimental data in the energy range above 1 MeV/amu, which is of interest for radiotherapy. For carbon ions as incident particles a few sets of experimental data on W exist at low energies and have been recently extended to higher energies. The average W value for carbon ions at energies >10 MeV/amu is 34.7 0.9 eV, which is somewhat higher than the recommended value (34.5 0.5 eV) for all ions at energies >1 MeV/amu. There is a need for new W value measurements for heavy-ions in air at energies >10 keV/amu, and especially for C ions of several hundreds of MeV/amu that are of interest in carbon-ion therapy.      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C U V Z _ _ _ _ ~_ z_ h_ g_ c_ Q_ P_ L_ :_ 9_ 5_ #_ "_ _  _  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ }_ k_ j_ f_ T_ S_ O_ =_ <_ 8_ &_ %_ !_ _ _  _ _ _ _ ] \ X F E A / . *      wvr`_[IHD21-zyucb^LKG540}|xfeaONJ873!   {ihdRQM;:6$#    !"&89=OPTfgk}~ #56:LMQcdhz{-'Contents1TablecHrSummaryInformation( DocumentSummaryInformation8       !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`adefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~CPYA 4.2656 220# ' ,: XJ +@ s !fa??P` WforCions_Energy  Q@q= ף#@-@333333@8@9@p= D@p= H@H@I@R@Y@^@@_@b@e@ h@ l@ n@p@0q@r@r@Pt@u@pw@x@X@@@@@ӵ@@(\#@Q3@9@Q=@A@GzC@F@I@Gz@@ ףp= @ ףp= @$@Hz-@3@8@I@R@@_@e@ l@0q@Pt@pw@Q0@9@>@fffff?@fffffD@fffffH@R@@_@e@ l@0q@Pt@pw@9@I@R@@_@e@ l@0q@Pt@pw@@@X@p@p@,@@@@@~@AA`A`<A@ A\%A,t,t,t,t,t s U!a^!^?? WforCions_CinNHube  ,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t]@V@33333sR@33333O@33333M@,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t s U!a^!^?? WforCions_CinNBohr  ,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,tP@O@LN@fffffL@L@YK@,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t s pE!amQm?? WforCions_A B ,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,tY@@B@A@,t,t,t@@p= ףA@QA@,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t s  !aaPa??PP WforCions_airIIAEA  ,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t@A@@A@,t,t,t,t,t,t,t@A@@A@@A@,t,t,t@A@@A@ s pE!a_Q_?? WforCions_other  ,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,tA@33333@@,t,tA@,t@A@,t,t,tq= ףA@@@A@ s A!aaa??WW WforCions_here  ,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,t,tQXA@,t,t,t,t,tQXA@,tQXA@,t HDZZ7{:h`@:hSCATTER.O,FdXXlBAlBA @.A?5 @fffff?@ C@@_1~l "&2QOS2? ף= ף=Pd1, g wc??>>OB  1000 g &  tP?*o?$M!CText  EE@ M \l(3) C ioni \l(5) ostali ioni \l(4) IAEA, svi \l(6) ovaj rad, C g #P4?s9?(i>>3D ( 6iP4?s9?(i i GB33pv??m->Rbv?&>&- m?GĮ76Č ??DDD???EEF4bF! G EEEv??m->v?&>&- m?GĮ76Č ?$@@ g w  L4A" sA@$ >>@YR  l "&d g LqP\@8տOC@$ >>XT  l "&d g oD^ґ*Ps@([fA@$>>D@YL  %&  \i(\p120(W)) (eV) g / = qP\@$jn>@$>>BXB  *&W  \i(E) (MeV/amu) g # 5O A?ݪ(">>__BCO2 ( %"A?ݪ(" "  ??? @ @@  @ g $$ǔ? 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