ࡱ>    q`U*bjbjqPqP 70::ѝ&@@@(h ***8*<,,p<-"^-^-^-q.6.. #%%%%%%$ҍh:Iuy5m.q.y5y5I^-^->>>y5N^-^-#>y5#>>Nos^-, *<q0Ԋ0q=`ssot(.q00>12...IIs>p...y5y5y5y5"** Agent-based modelling of vMEMEs: A preliminary appraisal Armano Srbljinovi, M.Sc., Institute for Research and Development of Defence Systems, Ministry of Defence of the Republic of Croatia, armano.srbljinovic@morh.hr Prof. Ljubica Baki-Tomi, Ph.D., Faculty of Teacher Education, University of Zagreb, Croatia, lj.bakic-tomic@ufzg.hr Jasmina Bo~i, M.A., Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb, jbozic@ffzg.hr Abstract The paper brings forth a concise review of agent-based modelling methodology with an appraisal of its application to cultural transmission, here seen as the dynamic process of value-MEME (vMEME) systems' transformation. Basic characteristics of the vMEME systems and the agent-based modelling methodology are presented. Opportunities of applying agent-based modelling techniques to vMEME systems are considered and the potential benefits of such an approach are preliminarily assessed. Major constituent elements of an agent-based simulation model of vMEME systems are discussed. The model's usage is envisioned to improve understanding of evolution, interaction and transformation of human values systems. A particularly interesting application may concern the values systems conducive to the development of a knowledge society. Key words: agent-based models, cultural transmission, memes, vMEMEs Memes and their replication A meme can be defined as an information pattern, held in an individual's memory, which is capable of being copied to another individual's memory. Examples of memes include anything that can be learned or remembered: ideas, knowledge, habits, beliefs, skills, images, tunes, catch-phrases, fashions, etc. (Dawkins, 1976; Heylighen, 1998). Memes may be viewed as fundamental units of cultural transmission. The role that memes play in cultural transmission is analogous to the role genes play in biological evolution, although considerable differences may also be noted. One of the most obvious differences is that genes propagate from generation to generation, while memes may rapidly transmit within the same generation. Fast intra-generational transmission gains particular importance in modern, technologically advanced societies, whose members are interconnected with a multitude of communication media. Heylighen (1998) differentiates between four stages in the process of memes replication: 1) assimilation by an individual, or a host of the meme; 2) retention in the host's memory; 3) expression by the host in language, behaviour or some other form that can be perceived by others; 4) transmission of thus created meme vehicle to one or more other individuals. Memes do not always get copied perfectly. In those rare cases when (groups of) memes are replicated without any modifications, we speak of unbiased transmission (Boyd and Richerson, 1985). More often, however, only some of the memes, to which an individual is exposed to, pass through all the four replication stages, including the transmission. This happens because each of the replication stages is accompanied by the selection process through which some of the memes are eliminated entirely, while some may become refined, combined with other memes, or otherwise modified. New memes may also be invented or discovered by a host and this is assumed to take place during the assimilation phase. General flexibility of human cultural patterns and the relative ease, with which they interweave, blend and melt together, point to another important difference between memes and genes, related to the degree of accuracy of the replication process. Namely, the so-called copying-fidelity of memes proves to be much lower compared to the copying-fidelity of genes. Heylighen (1998) differentiates between a number of selection criteria at work in each of the replication stages. These criteria generally indicate the meme's fitness, i.e. the prospects that a given meme will survive the four stages of the replication process. The criteria reflect various sorts of bias introduced into the process. Heylighen classifies the criteria into four groups according to the sources of bias: objective criteria, where sources of bias are independent of both the hosts and the memes, subjective criteria, where the source of bias is a meme's host, intersubjective criteria, where bias is introduced through social interactions among hosts, meme-centred criteria, where memes themselves present sources of bias. Table 1 lists all Heylighen's criteria according to the source of bias and the replication stage during which they are most active. Source of bias / Replication stageObjectiveSubjectiveIntersubjectiveMeme-centredAssimilationdistinctivenessnovelty, simplicity, coherenceauthority, formalityself-justificationRetentioninvariance, controllabilitycoherence, utilityconformityself-reinforcement, intoleranceExpressionexpressivityproselytismTransmissionpublicityproselytismTable 1: Memes selection criteria according to the source of bias and the replication stage (adapted from Heylighen, 1998) vMEME systems Beck and Cowan (1996) invented the term vMEMEs or "value-MEMEs" (pronounced "vee-meems"), the little "v" standing for "values". Although vMEMEs refer to human values, they are not understood as fundamental values, not even as fundamental units of values. vMEMEs are thought of as value systems, rather than individual values-related memes. Beck and Cowan, following Graves (1966), view human development as an unfolding, emergent, oscillating, spiralling process, characterised by a complex dynamics. vMEMEs can be seen as typical systemic stages of this process. Graves, and subsequently Beck and Cowan, have identified eight stages or "levels of human existence" and denoted them with colours (Table 2). When a person attains a certain level (i.e. vMEME), his or her worldview, values, attitudes, beliefs, relationships with others, feelings, motivations, ways of learning (i.e. memes) all tend to align with the general characteristics of the attained level. As human life conditions change, new vMEMEs may emerge so that the list presented in Table 2 is not final. LEVELCOLOURPROBLEMS OF EXISTENCEFOCUSTHINKINGMOTIVATIONAL SYSTEMVALUE SYSTEM1BeigeMaintaining physiological stabilitySelfAutomaticPhysiologicalAutomatic / Instinctive2PurpleAchievement of relative safetyGroupAutisticAssuranceAnimistic / Tribalistic3RedLiving with self-awarenessSelfEgocentricSurvivalEgocentric / Exploitive4BlueAchieving everlasting peace of mindGroupAbsolutisticSecurityAbsolutely / Saintly5OrangeConquering the physical universeSelfMultiplisticIndependenceMaterialistic / Achiever6GreenLiving with the human elementGroupRelativisticAffiliationRelativistic / Sociocentric7YellowRestoring viability to a disordered worldSelfSystemicExistentialSystemic / Integrative8TurquoiseAccepting existential dichotomiesGroupDifferentialExperienceHolistic / ExperimentalTable 2: Eight levels of human existence and their general characteristics As we have seen, vMEMEs are not basic, individual memes, but rather the whole complexes of more elementary memes, which, taken together, characterise the levels of biopsychosocial development of their hosts. These meme complexes, or memeplexes, as they are sometimes called, influence the memes replication process, due to the fact that they consist of mutually supportive, compatible memes, which facilitate the assimilation of other similar memes. Therefore, it is to be expected that the vMEMEs would particularly influence some of the Heylighen's selection criteria, such as coherence, self-justification, self-reinforcement, (in)tolerance, and proselytism. Agent-based modelling methodology Agents may be broadly defined as software entities interacting within a virtual environment (Gilbert, 2004). Agents are typically characterised by their state variables or attributes and by the rules of behaviour. Some authors require that agents possess a degree of autonomy and specialisation (Kennedy et al., 2001). Others are more inclusive and require agents are only equipped with a set of condition-action rules (Gilbert and Troitzsch, 1999). When modelling human society, agents may correspond to human individuals, or to collective social actors, such as groups, communities, and organisations. It is relatively easy to model heterogeneous agents with different values of various attributes, as well as agents with wholly different sets of attributes and rules of behaviour. When agents are numerous, even relatively simple rules of their behaviour and interaction may cause complex dependencies of agents' states on (complex combinations of) other agents' states, which also evolve over time. Prior to the arrival of cheap and powerful computing devices, we were hampered in our ability to study intricate workings of such complex systems. Today computers are commonly used to simulate a multitude of agents and to explore the emergent collective-level consequences of the specified individual-level rules. "Emergent properties are often surprising because it can be hard to anticipate the full consequences of even simple forms of interaction" (Axelrod, 1997, p. 4). The resulting computer simulation models, which have been used to explore complex dynamics of a multitude of agents interactions, are known as agent-based models. Besides the modelling of bottom-up effects originating at the individual level and influencing the collective one, agent-based models are also capable of capturing top-down effects, arising at the collective level and influencing the level of individual agents. This feature becomes particularly important when simulating social processes because human individuals are capable of observing patterns and structures emerging at the collective level and modifying their behaviour accordingly. In this way collective patterns and structures cause feedback effects on the behaviour of individuals (Gilbert and Troitzsch, 1999). Cederman (1997) notes several additional reasons why agent-based models are appropriate for modelling human society. In contrast to most of analytical models, agent-based models are adequate for modelling processes exhibiting far-from-equilibrium behaviour and path dependency. They allow for modelling more "fluid" or "turbulent" social conditions when modelled agents and their identities are not fixed or given, but susceptible to changes that may include "birth" or "death" of individual agents, as well as adaptation of their behaviour. It is also relatively easy to model boundedly rational agents, making decisions and acting in conditions of incomplete information, and bounded knowledge and processing power. For many of the reasons noted above, agent-based models have so far been applied to diverse areas of social sciences (Epstein, 2007). Gilbert (2004) classifies agent-based models according to several criteria as follows: according to the level of detail incorporated into descriptive and abstract models, according to direct descriptiveness of or applicability to some real human society or group into realistic and artificial models, according to model's normative dimension into models primarily intended to aid understanding and normative models, according to the representation of physical and social spaces into spatial and network models, according to the complexity of agents into models consisting of simple versus ones consisting of complex agents. Iterative step-by-step design method is usually advocated as the most appropriate for designing abstract agent-based models. The first step is to start from a very simple model, which is easy to specify and implement. When one understands this simple model and its dynamics, it can be extended to encompass more features and more complexity (Gilbert, 2004). This procedure is regularly followed whenever new features are added to the model. By restarting the analysis from scratch from time to time, and adding theoretical features incrementally, this design strategy makes it easier to manage overwhelming complexity (Cederman, 1997). The design of an agent-based model usually begins with defining types of objects to be included: agents, features that agents use in their activities and communication, and others. Then the attributes of each object are specified: characteristics, properties, state variables, etc. After completing the static part of design, dynamics of the model is to be considered: interactions of each class of agents with the environment, interactions between agents, conditions under which these actions occur. Typically, during this process it will be realised that additional attributes are needed for various agents, so that the design process will need to return to the initial stages, perhaps several times (Gilbert, 2004). An agent-based model of vMEME systems Memetic theory provides a particularly fertile ground for applying the agent-based modelling methodology. The concept of memes and the complex dependencies of hosts' vMEME complexes on other hosts' vMEMEs, which evolve over time, as various individual memes replicate and spread across the population, call for a closer examination by means of a computer simulation. In spite of the great potential, agent-based models have been only occasionally applied to the study of memes and their replication (e.g. Gaylord and D'Andria, 1998; Rixon and Burn, 2004). By synthesizing the main findings of the previous sections, here we provide a sketch of an agent-based model of vMEME systems. We begin the models description with outlining the static part of design. The model would feature two main kinds of agents: hosts and memes. Each host would have at its disposal a "memory", containing all the memes that it currently possesses. As memory resources are always limited, there would be an upper bound on the memory capacity, and each host could carry only a number of memes that is less than the value of the upper limit. Each meme of each host would score on each of the selection criteria and the meme's scores would be represented as the attributes of the meme. The scores will be used for evaluating the meme's chances for selection during each of the stages of the replication process. Each host would possess a special attribute that would represent the host's vMEME. The value of this attribute would reflect the overall state of the total memeplex contained in the host's memory. Now we move on to describing the model's dynamics. An outline of the simulation algorithm is presented in Table 3. INITIALISATION For each host: Set the initial values of its attributes Fill the host's memory with initial memes For each meme in the host's memory: Set the initial values of its attributes ITERATION FLOW At each iteration for each host: ASSIMILATION: If the host's memory is not full: Select candidates for assimilation from the memes pool For each candidate meme: Compute the composite score for assimilation Select memes that will be assimilated Assimilate selected memes in the host's memory If the host's memory is not full: Allow for the invention of a new meme Set the initial values of the new meme's attributes Assimilate the new meme in the host's memory RETENTION: For each meme in the host's memory: Compute the composite score for retention Select memes that will be retained Retain selected memes in the host's memory, delete others EXPRESSION: For each meme in the host's memory: Compute the composite score for expression Select memes that will be expressed Express selected memes TRANSMISSION ELIGIBILITY: For each meme in the host's memory: Compute the composite score for transmission Select memes that are eligible for transmission Update the value of the host's vMEME For each meme in the host's memory: Update the scores on the selection criteria Repeat iterationTable 3: Outline of the simulation algorithm The outline given in Table 3 has been developed in accordance with the theoretical guidelines presented in previous sections. The memes replication process is modelled as consisting of four stages, with each stage accompanied by the corresponding selection mechanism. The values of the composite scores for each of the stages would be computed on the basis of the values of the meme's scores on all the criteria active during the given stage (Table 1). For example, the value of the composite score of a certain meme for the expression stage could be computed as a weighted sum of the meme's scores on the expressivity and the proselytism criteria. The weights would represent the relative importance attached to the corresponding criteria. The greater the composite score of a meme for a certain replication stage, the higher the probability that this particular meme will be selected during the respective stage. The model also accounts for possible shifts in hosts' development levels by including the assessment of vMEME levels as an integral part of the model's dynamics. As can be seen in Table 3, the value of each host's vMEME would be updated at each iteration, immediately after the memes replication cycle. We assume here that each vMEME level would be characterised by certain typical memeplexes, which are regularly present in hosts when they attain that particular level. After each memes replication cycle all the memes of a host would be scanned to account for possibly newly assimilated memes, as well as for the memes possibly lost during the retention stage. By comparing the current content of the host's memory to the memeplexes characteristic of certain vMEME levels, the host's current vMEME level would be determined. After updating the host's vMEME level, the scores on the selection criteria of the memes in the host's memory would also be updated. Algorithms for updating scores would generally depend on the nature of the corresponding selection criteria (Table 1). The scores on objective criteria may be regarded as relatively constant in time and they might not need to be updated at all. The scores on subjective criteria would be updated primarily on the basis of the current internal state of the host agent. For example, the value of the coherence criterion for a given meme would typically depend on the other memes contained in the host's memory. The scores on inter-subjective criteria would be updated primarily on the basis of the current internal states of other host agents in the given host's spatial and/or social neighbourhood. For example, the value of the conformity criterion for a given meme would typically depend on the memes contained in the memories of other host agents in the given host's spatial and/or social neighbourhood. The scores on meme-centred criteria would be updated primarily on the basis of the current internal state of the given meme agent, as well as the current internal states of the similar meme agents contained in other hosts. However, as noted earlier, the host's vMEME level could also influence the scores on meme-centred criteria. Further development of algorithms for updating scores on the selection criteria will probably require introduction of additional attributes to both the host and the meme agents. Notice that the outline presented in Table 3 is a general and a preliminary one. It allows for incremental addition of many features, which remain to be specified in more detail during later stages of the model's development. Besides the algorithms for updating scores on the selection criteria, we have already indicated several features awaiting further specification, such as the characterisation of vMEME levels by typical memeplexes, and weights of the individual selection criteria used to calculate composite scores. One of the as yet unspecified features is also the mechanism of selecting candidates for assimilation from the memes pool. Obviously, memes that might be assimilated must be expressed by their hosts and must be eligible for transmission. What remains unresolved, however, is the way in which a given host would "encounter" such memes. A brief digression is here in place. One may generally distinguish decentralized person-to-person transmission from the more centralized or one-sided modes of cultural transmission typical of mass media such as newspapers, radio and TV broadcasting. Person-to person transmission is in agent-based models usually represented as transmission between agents which are mutually close. The closeness of agents may be spatial, in which case cultural traits, i.e. memes, have been transmitted between spatial neighbours. However, proximity may also be measured in a social space, which does not have to correspond to the physical space. In such cases, agents are mutually linked into social networks, which may connect not only neighbours but also spatially distant agents. When physical space and the space of social interactions are both important, they may both be represented within the same model, which then possesses properties of both spatial and network models. Back to the discussion of our model, the decision whether it will be the spatial or the network one, or whether it will combine the characteristics of the two, is still left open. However, some of the consequences of this choice may already be envisioned. If the model will feature the spatial representation of agents' proximity, then a given host could encounter memes candidates for assimilation through some way of contacting agents from the host's spatial neighbourhood. If the model will contain the network representation of agents' proximity, then a given host could encounter memes candidates for assimilation by contacting agents from the host's social network. Finally, if the model will combine the characteristics of both the spatial and the network models, then contacting agents from both the host's spatial neighbourhood and the social network could provide for memes, which are candidates for assimilation. Notice that the one-sided, centralized modes of transmission have already been included in the above outlined model, indirectly at least. Namely, certain memes could have exceptionally high values of the authority and the publicity scores, indicating that these memes originate from authoritative sources, which invest great efforts into their dissemination. As the authority and the publicity criteria play a prominent role in the assimilation and the transmission phases, memes scoring better on these criteria will automatically have better chances of replication. Possible extensions of the model Although the presented model's outline conforms to the main theoretical guidelines presented earlier, there still remain features of memetic theory that this model does not account for. As noted earlier, the step-by-step design strategy that we have adopted allows for adding theoretical features incrementally, and therefore makes it easier to manage sometimes overwhelming complexity of the modelled phenomena. Here we briefly consider several directions in which the presented model could be extended to encompass some additional and more complex aspects of memetic theory. The basic model that has been presented in the previous section consists of relatively simple agents. Both hosts and memes are assumed to possess only several attributes and the actions of agents are assumed to be driven by simple condition-action rules. Therefore, we shall here first consider several ways in which the agents in our model could be made more complex. As can be seen in Table 3, the basic model accounts for the host's ability of inventing new memes. However, it has been silently assumed that the algorithm that sets the initial values of the new memes attributes is very simple, for instance, the new meme may be initialized in a random way. The model, as proposed above, does not account for the host's abilities of modifying already assimilated memes, or combining assimilated memes to form new ones. In order to include those features in the model, a more complex algorithm that sets the initial values of the new memes attributes would be needed. In particular, the initial values of the new memes attributes would need to depend on the current values of attributes of other memes that have already been contained in the host's memory, and perhaps even on the current internal states of other host agents in the given host's spatial and/or social neighbourhood. In other words, host agents might be endowed with a simple form of reasoning on the characteristics of already assimilated memes, as well as on the characteristics of the memes present in their neighbourhood. Such hosts might therefore "consider suitability" of particular memes, modify or combine some of the assimilated memes, and invent new memes on the basis of their "reasoning". The "reasoning" ability could also impact the selection mechanisms involved in assimilation, retention, expression and transmission stages. Heylighen (1998) claims that a meme, in order to be assimilated, must be respectively noticed, understood, and accepted by the host. The more complex host agents might contain built-in algorithms of noticing, understanding and accepting memes from the neighbourhood. In our basic model it has been assumed that memes are expressed and eligible for transmission to all potential recipients. However, this may not be realistic. The meme's host might have the ability to decide whether a certain meme would be "presented" to a particular other host or not. In other words, expression and eligibility for transmission of a meme might be differentially applied to different hosts. Not only the host agents might become more complex, but the meme agents as well. Rixon et al. (2006) consider memes as embodiments of certain behaviour or belief patterns. Meme agents representing, for example, behaviour patterns contain ready-made algorithms of behaviour applicable to the hosts that assimilate the given meme. "Using the meme [agent] to encapsulate behaviour means that it is simple for [host] agents to swap their memes and have the characterising behaviour follow []" (Rixon et al., 2006, p. 12). By taking this approach and applying it consistently, the earlier mentioned simple algorithms of hosts' "reasoning" on the "suitability" of particular memes might also become embodied as meme agents and replicated and spread among the hosts like any other meme. Another extension of the above proposed basic model might include introduction of new kinds of agents, in addition to the host and the meme agents. Describing the expression and transmission stages of memes replication, Heylighen (1998) points out that in order to be communicated to other hosts, a meme must emerge from its memory storage and enter into a physical shape that can be perceived by others. This physical shape is called the meme vehicle. Meme vehicles include texts, photographs, artefacts, and in a wider sense even sound waves of human speech, or electric impulses transmitted through telecommunication channels. Such meme vehicles present prospective candidates for the third kind of agents to be included in our model. Meme vehicle agents could contain individual memes or whole memeplexes. They could be emitted by host agents and an individual host could send off multiple copies of identical meme vehicles. Needless to say, the introduction of meme vehicle agents would further complicate algorithms describing assimilation, expression and transmission stages of memes replication. After being emitted by a host, meme vehicles could circulate or float around unless they become noticed, understood and accepted by certain hosts. Algorithms of "circulation" could be contained within the meme vehicle agents so that, for example, a book would circulate slower than a radio wave. Or, to take another example, human speech wave would have a much shorter reach than a TV-broadcasted signal. Although detailed considerations of the implementation of the proposed model are out of the scope of this work, we may note here that the simulation of the basic model, with a moderate number of relatively simple host and meme agents, is expected to run on contemporary personal computers. On the other hand, the extended model, with a multiplicity of host, meme and meme vehicle agents, and with a considerable complexity of individual agents, would require an adequately large, distributed computing infrastructure. Possible applications and benefits of the model According to the earlier mentioned Gilbert's classifications of agent-based models, the model presented in this paper can be classified as an abstract, but nevertheless realistic model, which aims to aid understanding, rather than provide normative advice. As to the distinction between spatial and network models, we have already noted that the decision on this question has not yet been made. We have also pointed out that the basic model would consist of simple agents, while the extended version would introduce more complex agents. The goal of abstract models is to capture the most essential characteristics of the modelled phenomena. The primary value of abstract models lies in raising interesting questions related to the conceptualisation and understanding of the phenomena that are being modelled. In case of the model presented here, the primary goal is to help abstraction, conceptualisation and formalisation of some of the most essential characteristics of memetic theory, particularly of those related to the memes replication process. Although abstract, the model is realistic because it is intended to aid in the understanding of actual human societies, and not of the purely artificial societies consisted of virtual non-human agents. Gilbert (2004, p.1) points to the benefits of clarity and precision that computer simulation models generally provide: "An advantage of using computer simulation is that it is necessary to think through one's basic assumptions very clearly in order to create a useful simulation model. Every relationship to be modelled has to be specified exactly. Every parameter has to be given a value, for otherwise it will be impossible to run the simulation. This discipline also means that the model is potentially open to inspection by other researchers, in all its detail." However, the existing body of theory may as yet be insufficiently developed to enable determining all the model's parameters unambiguously, as it is precisely the case with memetic theory. In such cases, the model to be developed may serve as a "laboratory tool", using which various sets of parameters' values corresponding to various variants of the basic theory could be investigated. Meirer et al. (2004, p.3) refer to this sort of exploration enabled by computer simulation models as "playing with theories": "The computing and visualising performance of this tool enables the modeller to change the parameters of a model quite easily. Considering how the model can be flexibly adjusted, or the boundary conditions, parameters and the scope of the model be changed, we were inclined to call this sort of tuning playing with theories." For illustration, here we provide an example of the possible use of our model for "playing with theories". Various strands of memetic theory emphasize different sources of bias as vital for memes' selective potential. While some authors regard meme-centred criteria as crucial (Blackmore, 1999), others are more inclined to take subjective and intersubjective criteria into consideration as well (Rixon et al., 2006). As we have already stressed, the model presented here would enable specifying weights of all the selection criteria according to their relative importance. Therefore the implementation of theories, which underline the importance of meme-centred criteria, would require higher values of the weights of meme-centred criteria, while the implementation of theories placing stronger emphasis on subjective and intersubjective criteria would require higher values of the weights corresponding to those criteria. What is important to note is that the model would enable "playing" with all kinds of theories by allowing the user to specify the relevant parameters at will and to explore the consequences of different specifications. Not only the weights of the selection criteria could be offered to "play with", but also various variants of algorithms for updating scores on the selection criteria, different ways of characterisation of vMEME levels by typical memeplexes, various ways of specifying spatial and/or social proximity of hosts, etc. Needless to say, the extended version of the model could provide for even more such "play-inviting" features. The model could find yet another application in testing various hypotheses related to the survival and spreading of particular memes or memeplexes. In other words, one could test how a meme with the given selection criteria scores would "fare" within a total pool of certain other memes. Similarly, one could also test how a memeplex consisted of particular memes with the given selection criteria scores would "fare" within a pool of certain other memeplexes. In the context of vMEMEs this particular problem may be rephrased as to how a memeplex corresponding to a certain vMEME level would "fare" within a pool of memeplexes corresponding to other vMEME levels. Besides theory testing, the investigation of memeplexes that are characteristic of certain vMEME levels may also have a practical value. It has been established that different management styles correspond to different vMEME levels, and that only some of those styles, i.e. levels, are conducive to team-building (Baki-Tomi et al., 2007). Therefore, if one wants to develop a group of "team-players", one would desire to develop members of the team towards those vMEME levels that are particularly conducive to team-building. By "playing" with the simulation model, one might obtain preliminary insight into how to develop such teams. For example, one might assess the current vMEMEs of the members of the team, use them as the input to the simulation model, and run the simulation under controlled conditions to see what would happen, i.e. in what ways would the vMEMEs of the members of the team transform, and which vMEMEs would prevail with time. Admittedly, as it would be very difficult in practice to determine the exact values of all the parameters of the model, such findings would not be perfectly reliable. However, one may often not need exact predictions, but only an indication of possible outcomes, and the simulation could be reliable enough to provide such an indication. Moreover, running a simulation would be less ethically questionable and less costly than experimenting with human team members in the real world. Obviously, the described application need not be limited to individual management styles, but may include any other individual trait that may be represented as a meme or a memeplex. If one could, for example, specify the basic parameters of the more general system of values, which is particularly conducive to the development of a knowledge society, such specification might also be used as the input to the simulation model and investigated through simulation runs under controlled conditions. Conclusion The approach adopted in this paper is very similar to the one of Rixon et al. (2006, p.13): "Our approach is pragmatic. We do not concern ourselves on whether memes 'exist' in Nature, or what they may 'be' in the context of human affairs. Rather, we are interested in using them as 'tools' that may help us elucidate some aspects of human dynamics." In other words, while the models of cultural transmission processes using memes as representational units help us obtain additional insight into those processes, or while they may even produce patterns that are similar to those which can be observed in the real world, it does not have to concern us whether memes as fundamental units of cultural transmission indeed exist in reality. Moreover, if the adopted approach, as we have attempted to elaborate, really allows us to think through the basic assumptions very clearly, to specify every relationship to be modelled very carefully, and to articulate the need to provide as exact as possible values to all the as yet undetermined parameters of the developing theory, then we may even hope that the taken approach might also help us to advance memetic theory past its current proto-scientific stage into a more mature and developed stage in near future. Acknowledgments We would like to express our gratitude to Mr. Branimir a e, B. 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HYPERLINK http://www.complexityscience.org/NoE/epistemoloyofmodelling.pdf http://www.complexityscience.org/NoE/epistemoloyofmodelling.pdf; Accessed on: September 28, 2007 Rixon, A. and S. Burn (2004); Exploring water conservation behaviour through participatory agent-based modelling; IFAC Workshop on Modelling and Control for Participatory Planning and Managing Water Systems, Venice, September 29 October 1, 2004;  HYPERLINK "http://www.elet.polimi.it/IFAC_TC_Environment/Venice2004/papers/m_rix_ven04.pdf" www.elet.polimi.it/IFAC_TC_Environment/Venice2004/papers/m_rix_ven04.pdf; Accessed on: September 28, 2007 rt| J j l n ~ Y  ÷Ü~wnw~g`~XQ h =Xh+h =Xh+5 h =XhNo[ h =XhYh =Xh]aJ h =Xh] h =Xh h =Xh6o h =Xh\h =Xh@+CJh =Xh6o5CJaJh =XhUm5CJ\]aJh =XhUm5CJaJh =Xh*s15CJaJh =Xh.%5CJaJh =XhB5CJaJh =Xh@+5CJaJh =Xh3.5CJaJt l n B^U yw & FgdvMgdO $7$8$H$a$gd0B $7$8$H$a$gdxgd)0gd$a$gd((e$a$gdX@$a$gd.% $xa$gdUm $xa$gd3.%.*T* AB]^ilpvx}ź~o`QF;h =Xh@r\CJaJh =XhTeCJaJh =XhTeB*CJaJphh =Xh:sB*CJaJphh =Xh,kB*CJaJphh =XhsQB*CJaJphh =XhV;WB*CJaJphh =XhXB*CJaJphh =XhcB*CJaJphh =XhcCJaJh =XhV;WCJaJ h =Xh5B*CJaJph h =Xh=+5B*CJaJph h =Xh\ h =Xh/")2a /0GU[fҼqbbSFh =Xh0BCJ^JaJh =Xh0BB*CJaJphh =Xh5 >B*CJaJphh =Xh`B*CJaJphh =XhB*CJaJphh =XhF@B*CJaJphh =XhcB*CJaJphh =XhV;WB*CJaJph*jh =XhV;W0JB*CJUaJphh =XhB*CJaJphh =Xh,kB*CJaJphh =XhO B*CJaJphCjn$()0RSTU3xqh_XMh =Xh]~T^JaJ h =Xh]~Th =Xh]~TaJh =Xh1+TaJ h =Xhod}jh =Xhf@a0JU h =XhsQ h =Xhf@a h =Xh^h =XhTe6] h =XhTeh =Xhf@aB*phh =Xh@r\B*phh =XhTeB*phh =Xh0BCJ^JaJh =XhCJ^JaJh =XhCJ^JaJh =XhCJ^JaJ3 9Bk}  $*CMR+Lxy оٵ~~~u~lh =XhNo[aJh =XhIaJh =XhUsmaJh =XhO aJh =Xh*#6aJh =Xh aJh =Xh ffaJh =Xh*#aJh =Xh@r\aJh =XhQ?aJh =XhSaJh =Xh aJh =Xhf@aaJh =Xh]~TaJ h =Xhf@a h =Xh]~T h =Xhod})&89@AEKRWjx[im-ɷɷɮɷɷɥɘ~qch =Xhu-5CJ^JaJh =Xh1+TCJ^JaJh =Xh0BCJ^JaJh =XhICJ^JaJh =Xh^HCJ^JaJh =XhsQaJh =XhQoaJh =Xh?'aJh =XhIaJh =XhvMaJh =Xh3 zaJh =XhUsmaJh =Xh aJh =XhE96aJh =XhE9aJ#[ (5$$7$8$H$Ifa$gdu- $7$8$H$a$gdV;W & FgdvM -456CRS[\  %'46?@KMVos h =XhB?'CJOJQJ^JaJ h =Xh=+5B*CJaJphh =Xhu-B*CJaJphh =Xh3 z^JaJh =Xh1+T^JaJ h =Xh1+Th =Xh1+T5h =Xh1+TCJ^JaJh =Xhu-CJ^JaJh =Xhu-5CJ^JaJh =XhsQ5CJ^JaJ)56CS\K=,,$$7$8$H$Ifa$gd1+T $7$8$H$Ifgd1+Tkd$$Iflr(% t0644 la\hr}:kd$$Iflr(% t0644 la$$7$8$H$Ifa$gd1+T$$7$8$H$Ifa$gd1+T $7$8$H$Ifgd1+T   K=,,$$7$8$H$Ifa$gd1+T $7$8$H$Ifgd1+Tkd$$Iflr(% t0644 la &'4:, $7$8$H$Ifgd1+Tkd$$Iflr(% t0644 la$$7$8$H$Ifa$gd1+T456@LM:kd<$$Iflr(% t0644 la$$7$8$H$Ifa$gd1+TM*" ""&","5"C"J"W"X"Z"`""" $$Ifa$gdcWxFfc$d$If^a$gd,$d$If^a$gdcWx$x7$8$H$a$gd5` $7$8$H$a$gd]xgd=+ $xa$gd1+T "#,-/;<=>KLMSTU)*LP O S T m n o 塀﹨精|qfqf[h =XhrCJaJh =Xh]rCJaJh =XhNo[CJaJh =XheCJaJh =Xh2o;CJaJh =Xha'CJaJh =Xh],CJaJ h =XhB?'CJOJQJ^JaJ h =Xh]rCJOJQJ^JaJ&h =XhB?'6CJOJQJ]^JaJ h =Xha'CJOJQJ^JaJ h =XhhCJOJQJ^JaJ#o A!B!L!Q!R!Z!_!i!!!""W"X"Z""ǺǺǺǠǭiTCi!h =Xh,B*CJ^JaJph)h =Xh,B*CJOJQJ^JaJph1h =Xh,B*CJOJQJ^JaJmH phsH  h =Xh5CJOJQJ^JaJh =Xhm\&CJ^JaJh =Xh^fCJ^JaJh =Xh>CJ^JaJh =XhcWxCJ^JaJh =Xh]CJ^JaJh =Xh]CJaJh =Xh5CJaJh =XhrCJaJh =XheCJaJ"""""""""""####5#:#E#N#f#g#FfFf FfC$d$If^a$gdcWx$d$If^a$gd,$d$If^a$gdOql""##f#g#n##############$ $ $%$&$'$/$L$S$_$`$k$l$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$%"%.%/%9%:%Q%R%S%\%%ռռռռռռռռռռռռռռռգգգգգ h =Xhm\&h =Xhm\&51h =XhNkB*CJOJQJ^JaJmH phsH 1h =XhOqlB*CJOJQJ^JaJmH phsH 1h =Xh,B*CJOJQJ^JaJmH phsH !h =Xh,B*OJQJ^Jph9g#i#n###########$ $&$'$)$/$M$S$`$FfaFf$d$If^a$gd,$d$If^a$gdOql$d$If^a$gdcWx`$l$$$$$$$$$$$$$%"%/%:%R%S%Ff"Ff$d$If^a$gdOqlFf%$d$If^a$gdcWx$d$If^a$gd,S%%4(W(*g+.1144155&666r9A<g< $^a$gdo $ & Fa$gdNA] $ a$gdP $ a$gd! $ a$gd $^a$gdPxgdo$x7$8$H$a$gdHg $xa$gdm\&%%%%%m&&&&&&&''<'C'H'3(4(U(V(νά߬߬xxgVE h =Xh/LV5B*CJaJph h =Xh5B*CJaJph h =Xh],CJOJQJ^JaJ h =Xh/CJOJQJ^JaJ h =XhCJOJQJ^JaJ#h =Xhi)6CJOJQJ^JaJ h =Xhi)CJOJQJ^JaJ h =XhNnCJOJQJ^JaJ h =Xh2o;CJOJQJ^JaJ h =Xh>CJOJQJ^JaJh =Xhm\&B*CJaJphV(W(X(^(w((((,)-)V)W)}))))))))))))********++&+++1+2+g+k+l+s+v+w+++++++++++٬h =Xhk5CJaJh =Xh!5CJaJh =XhGj5CJaJh =Xh5CJaJh =XhCJaJh =Xh!CJaJh =XhGjCJaJh =Xh+CJaJh =XhCJaJ h =XhF5B*CJaJph5+++,,#,$,<,A,,,,,,,,,-|-}--......E.V.W.....////ۼð۰ϰۖۊϊϊϊwl`h =Xh:#5CJaJh =Xh+CJaJ$jh =Xh0J5CJUaJh =Xh5CJaJh =XhNo[5CJaJh =Xh]r5CJH*aJh =Xh+5CJaJ h =XhTh =Xh!5CJaJh =XhGj5CJaJh =XhT5CJaJh =Xhk5CJaJh =Xh]r5CJaJ%/00000011@1E1F111F2{223 3333333%4u444444444444 5)5051555553676b6c6637ëϟh =Xh+CJaJh =Xh5CJaJh =XhNA]5CJaJh =Xh|K5CJaJh =Xh^<5CJaJh =Xh>5CJaJh =Xh]r5CJaJh =XhS5CJaJh =Xh:#5CJaJh =Xh+5CJaJ23777r9k::A<B<K<f<g<<<< ==,======C>[>>>>>òÖuju_T_I_h =Xh0!CJaJh =Xh:CJaJh =Xh#-OCJaJh =XhepCJaJh =Xh7CJaJh =Xh]rCJaJh =XhCJaJh =XhCJaJ h =XhQ5B*CJaJph h =Xh35B*CJaJph h =Xh75B*CJaJphh =Xhd1CJaJh =XhCNeCJaJh =Xh+CJaJh =Xh$sCJaJ>>???????@f@i@@@@AAA:A>AHATAUAAAAAAAAAAAABB&BoBBBBԾԨԝɒߨɨxxg!jh =Xh0!0JCJUaJh =Xh0!CJaJh =XhB; 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Boschetti (2006); The Meme as a Design Pattern for Social Learning in Agent-Based Models; Paper submitted to the Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation;  HYPERLINK "http://www.per.marine.csiro.au/staff/Fabio.Boschetti/papers/memes.pdf" http://www.per.marine.csiro.au/staff/Fabio.Boschetti/papers/memes.pdf; Accessed on: September 28, 2007 Cultural transmission is here broadly understood as a process whereby phenotypic traits, such as learned behaviours, are passed from one individual to another. Cultural transmission is often contrasted with individual learning, i.e. acquiring traits through individual experience.  Strictly speaking, memetic transmission is only one stage in the process of memes replication, but, as noted earlier, when we refer to "cultural transmission", we use the term "transmission" in a somewhat broader sense.  The term "individual-based models" is also often used in ecological applications. The term "multi-agent systems" is usually associated with agent-based models consisting of complex agents.  In a possible graphical representation hosts could be coloured in accordance to their vMEMEs.  The difference between the spatial and the social neighbourhood of a host will be given more attention a few paragraphs further.  In its simplest form both the expression and the eligibility for transmission of a meme could be modelled as binary flags. The flag for expression, for instance, would be on if the meme is expressed; while it would be off if the meme is not expressed by the host.     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