ࡱ> :<9>?@B5@JLbjbj22 `XXGDNNN4$ $w:L rwtwtwtwtwtwtw$}zR|wNww!!! 8Nrw!rw!6!*"$oJ6N:w. vg dnrJrww0wr]}\!|]}:w]}N:w8|E! lwuwwd !JSAE Paper Number 20037077 SAE Paper Number 2003-01-2800 FATIQUE AND CORROSION ISSUES FOR SAFETY IMPROVEMENTS IN AVIATION INDUSTRY Borivoj Galovic / Sanja Steiner University of Zagreb Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering - Croatia ABSTRACT Analyzing structure elements in a design estimated lifetime, structure integrity and capability to withstand all loadings is highly reduced by the end of designed estimated lifetime. Durability and reliability of vehicle structures is a function of fatigue and corrosion issues, which respectively affects crashworthiness requirements and safety. In aviation industry, from the point of a structure design, three structure design generations could be differentiated: a) the generation where major structure design is based on static strength and build-in redundancy i.e. some fail-safe elements; b) the generation introducing fail-tolerant structure design philosophy; and c) the generation additionally introducing full scale fatigue testing to determine wide-spread fatigue damage and corrosion prevention and control program. Implementation of aircraft structure design and maintenance philosophy i.e. in aviation recommended and standardized programs such as Supplement Structure Inspection Program, Corrosion Prevention and Control Program, Wide-Spread Fatigue damage evaluation and Repair Assessment Evaluation, may result with significant contribution to safety level in automotive industry. INTRODUCTION Since the very beginning there is continuous transfer of technology between automotive and aviation industry for the benefit of human desires. One example of ever existing correlation of automotive and aviation industry is a known aviation riddle: If you can buy a used airplane for about the same price as a new sports car, what's the main difference between the sports car and the airplane? Answer: If you speed up the sports car to about 75 miles per hour and pull back on the steering wheel, nothing very interesting happens.[1] Well, the riddle addresses another real question as well: how much are we willing to pay for the safety on account of a profit? The main reason why used airplane and used car has lower market value is due to lower reliability and questionable structure integrity, i.e. level of safety. However, if we can save more lives by trying to do something rather than do nothing, it pays off. We all know that safety is a competitive advantage for operator and manufacturer as well. To manage and improve safety there are certain events that have to take place. Information has to be gathered, incidents investigated and facts correlated. Adjustments should than be made to correct failures in procedures or organizational practices. This process is dependent on the accurate reporting, collection and analyses of data. Many modern motor carriers are using advanced technologies to improve both safety and productivity. Engine control modules, satellite and wireless communication systems, vehicle warning systems, and other advanced electronics are being tested by many carriers to determine how they might improve safety. These technologies provide valuable tools and resources; however, they are only as good as the manner in which human operates them. To minimize human errors weve introduced computerized and automated systems. Aviation industry has achieved fantastic results in survivability in commercial air transport.  EMBED CorelPhotoPaint.Image.9  Figure 1. Worldwide Accident Rate in Commercial Jet Transportation Probability of survival in U.S.A. has reached 5,8 x 106 to 1 i.e. if you fly once a day, in 22,000 years you will not get killed on a commercial transport flight. (Survivability is developed measure by Dr. Arnold Barnett, of passengers odds of surviving next flight; it relates probability of not being in a fatal accident and probability of not surviving if fatal accident occurs). To prevent fatalities when accident happens, weve accepted crashworthiness standards, and we test each new design after Titanic. FATIGUE ISSUES IN AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR As always, investigations and research of structure integrity and durability started after some serious aircraft accidents. Aircraft accident in Lusaka (1977) pointed out the problem of overused structure and introduced material fatigue testing and fail-safe structure design philosophy. Accident in Rams den (1981) actualized the problem, after which it was realized that 15 years and 50 000 flight hours are high figures in aircraft operations. FAA sponsored conference on aged aircraft in Washington D.C. (1984), where limit parameters for old aircraft of 20 years and 60 000 flight hours were accepted. As a respond to these aircraft accidents, FAA has established NAARP - National Aging Aircraft Research Program, with task to re-evaluate aircraft structure integrity considering following factors: 1. Methodology for prediction of fatigue damage spread; 2. Structure checks of commercial transport aircrafts; 3. Assessment of aircraft structure repairs First additional documents for aircraft structure checks (Supplemental Structural Inspection Documents - SSID) were issued between 1979 and 1983 for old Boeing models, with intention to discover eventual fatigue damages within certain periods. Procedures were developed with time based on empirical data, and Boeing issued a number of SSID and CPCP documents, as a base for Airworthiness Directives issued by FAA. Since 1986 Boeing is investigating ageing of jet transport aircraft, with main objective to reach empirical data about structure ageing and efficiency of anticorrosive technology and methods. Justification for that is on one side improvement of crashworthiness and safety requirements and on another side prolongation of estimated lifetime. The best and complete overview of aircraft structural design technology evolution and validation, with scientific research justification by Ulf G. Goranson was presented at 1st International Conference on Fatigue Damage in Structural Materials, Hyannis Massachusetts in 1996 [2] Strong initiative to undertake actual measures caused accident of Aloha Airlines (1988) when 5,5 m of fuselage skin separated from cockpit roof at an altitude of 24 000 ft the crew and passengers found themselves in depressurized cabriolet. In 1988, Air Transport Association of America (ATA), Aerospace Industries Association of America (AIA) and FAA initiated establishment of international group of experts, named Aging Aircraft Task Force (AATF) also known as AATF Eleven.(Investigation was carried on eleven types of aircraft: A300, BA 1-11, B707/720, B727, B737, B747, DC8, DC9, DC10, F28, L1011). Some commercial transport aircraft did not have specified Airframe Service Life in Type Certificate. Airworthiness Certificate of aircraft (licence to safely operate) depends on maintenance quality and assurance in structure integrity and crashworthiness requirements. Therefore maintenance program should include additional checks for ageing structures to ensure safe and efficient operation during entire useful life time. In 1992 AATF was renamed into Airworthiness Assurance Working Group (AAWG), representing all three parties, operators, manufacturers and government, and corresponds to Aviation Rulemaking Advisory Committee. European Airworthiness Assurance Group at a moment investigates existing materials with aim to establish requirements for JAR 2X-1529 instructions and conditions to prolong aircrafts airworthiness. Existing requirements for aircraft in operation are set in JAR 26 i.e. JAR 25.1529 and FAA AC91-56B. STRUCTURE INTEGRITY ASSURANCE Investigation of AAWG resulted with establishment of 5 basic programs which articulate following elements: Manufacturers and JAA / FAA must: Manufacturer (Type Certificate Holder) must determine designed service life - DESIGN SERVICE GOAL DSG; Manufacturer (Type Certificate Holder) must determine possible extended service life - EXTENDED SERVICE GOAL ESG; Manufacturer (Type Certificate Holder) must ensure that DSG is incorporated in other documents (MRB Report, SSID) Operator must implement Supplementary Structural Inspection Program SSIP (Program should not be started later than at DSG). Operator must implement Corrosion Prevention and Control Program - CPCP (Program should not be started later than at DSG). Operator must implement Service Bulletin SB (Incorporate with Maintenance Program and Maintenance Planning Document). Operator must implement Repair assessment - RAT (should not be started later than at DSG). Operator must implement Widespread Fatigue Damage WFD (Incorporate with Maintenance Program and Maintenance Planning Document till end of DSG). Operator must ensure Maintenance History Records. Civil Aviation Authority approves manufacturers (Type Certificate Holder) provided SSIP, made and based on detail studies and evaluations of airframe characteristics and performance, SSIP is designed for evaluation of cracks propagation and in accordance to fail-tolerant philosophy. For aircraft certified in accordance to FAR 25.571 with amendment 45/55, standards for damage tolerance are part of MRB Report according to MSG3 requirements, and additional checks regulated by AC91-56 and AWN 89. Evaluation of structure integrity continuous process and based on the results, next check due determined. It is of great importance to identify Principal Structure Elements PSE, and to perform testing with efficient NDI methods, and necessary partly disassembling certain airframe zones. CPCP must be a part of MRB Report. If TCH has not established CPCP, operator or group of operators must develop such program, and usually is determined by AD. If level of corrosion is higher, the check intervals will be reduced and/or repair program developed. If some structure elements requires frequent inspections, or it is hard to perform check (hidden and not accessible without disassembling),  EMBED CorelDRAW.Graphic.9  Figure 2. TCH Structural Task Group organization modification or element replacement may be required, in accordance to instructions given in SB. Performed modifications operator should report to TCH. By monitoring fleet test results TCH will produce SB (as a continuous product support) based on Structural Task Group STG recommendations (See Figure 2.) Recommendations are based on: Possible influence on structure airworthiness; Evaluation of testing performed; Frequency of appearance; Damage spread on structure in vicinity In practice weve discovered that even best maintained aircraft structures with repairs performed, original structure integrity is not recovered. Therefore, regulator requires additional Repair Assessment Program - RAP to be performed - by which should be: Defined time to perform evaluation, which does not exceeds DSG; Determined Baseline Zonal Inspection BZI; Develop airframe repairs (for pressurized fuselage); Re-check status and quality of performed SB. WFD - widespread fatigue damage in structure is characterized by a number of cracks in load carrying elements, which are big enough or too numerous, so that it exceeds level of tolerant damage. Therefore, a level of tolerant damage generated by WFD should be established, above which aircraft is not airwothy. Repairs to prolong airworthiness are actually partial overhaul and are regulated by Advisory Circular AC 91-56B. Conclusion Procedures suggested by Airworthiness Assurance Working Group (AAWG) and globally accepted in aviation industry thru JAA/FAA regulations introduces five programs - SSIP, CPCP, SB, RAT and WFD that are fundamental for upgrading aircraft maintenance program. Cooperation of manufacturers, operators and authorities resulted with great results in raising level of safety and more efficient and economic operations. Designing for continued structural integrity in the presence of damage such as fatigue or corrosion is an evolutionary process. Performance demands, increasing structural complexity, and ageing fleet reassessments have required development of standards suitable for application by large teams of engineers.[2] Five adopted programs provided such standards for new aircraft design. To achieve Type certificate, MRB Report must incorporate continuous development of such programs as airframe accumulates flight hours, cycles or years of operation. Existing NDI methods, ultrasonic, eddy current, visual with boroscope, D sight and edge of light EOL, or X-ray, are used accordingly to test and evaluate structure integrity required for continuous airworthiness. Developing multimodal NDI Analysis soft-wear, will improve detection possibilities, and quality of checks performed. Additionally, implementing ISO 9000 regulates assurance of quality control for production and maintenance, as independent system to reevaluate aircraft airworthiness. Activities and requirements to check crashworthiness and structure integrity does not stop after manufacturing and delivering aircraft, but is rather continuously and evolutionary upgraded while in operation, providing valuable data for future improvements. By continuous authority inspection and issuing Airworthiness Directives, operators management is legally bound to maintain safety before profit. The introduction of electronic crash recorders into automotive fleet provides breakthrough opportunities for obtaining research data useful in the evaluation of motor vehicle safety system. The availability of real-world crash acceleration-time histories can help refine the technologies driving further improvements in future vehicle safety system in particular, improved crash sensor algorithms and deployment threshold design. Further, these crash histories can assist in the calibration of current crash severity determination techniques. [3] Such data can provide advance crash restraint system operation in terms or real-world events. However, these are histories that tell us nothing about structure incapability to withstand original crashworthiness requirements, i.e. structure strength and integrity, especially ageing vehicle structure. It took over 15 years after Aloha Airlines accident for aviation industry to develop programs, by which continuous structure integrity and crashworthiness is assured, with main objectives to improve survivability even when fatal accident happens. As experience is a hard teacher (first come test and than lecture), a sound judgment lead us to incorporate what has been already learned in aviation industry, and to apply similar design philosophy for all transport vehicles, especially for public vehicles with estimated long life time, or vehicles operated in hard climatic conditions. Acknowledgments To Mr. Ben Franklin by whom Ive learned: You should learn from mistakes of others, because youll never have enough time to make all those mistakes yourself. References [1] See how it flies, John S. Denker, 1996. [2] Fatigue issues in Aircraft Maintenance and Repairs, Ulf G. Goranson, Boeing Commercial Airplane Group, Seattle, Washington. Presented at the 1st International Conference on Fatigue Damage in Structural Materials, Hyannis, Massachusetts, September 22-27, 1996. [3] Summary of the National Transportation Safety Boards Symposium on Transportation & the Law; Ernie S. Grush, Ford Motor Company, April 25 & 26, 2000, Hyatt Regency Crystal City, Arlington, Virginia. [4] Aerodynamic Optimization of the Opel Calibra ITC Racing Car using Experiments and Computational Fluid Dynamics; Frank Werner, Steffen Frik, Adam Opel AG. [5] Damage Tolerance in Pressurized Fuselages; Swift, T., 11th Plantema Memorial Lecture, 14th Symposium of the International Committee on Aeronautical Fatigue (ICAF), Ottawa, Canada, June 8-12, 1989. [6] Widespread Fatigue Damage Treshold Estimates; Whittaker, I.C., Proceedings of the FAA-NASA Symposium on Continued Airworthiness of Aircraft Structures, Atlanta, Georgia, August 1996. CONTACT Borivoj Galovic, Ph.D.,University of Zagreb, professor at Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering; BS in A&A University of Washington, Seattle, Washington. Lecturing: Flight Mechanic, Aircraft Performance, Aircraft Structure & Systems, Aircraft Maintenance;  HYPERLINK "mailto:bgalovic@fpz.hr" bgalovic@fpz.hr Sanja Steiner, Ph.D., University of Zagreb, professor at Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering; Lecturing: Aviation Safety, Air Transport Engineering; Member of Flight Safety Foundation European Advisory Committee; Air Traffic Control Association;  HYPERLINK "mailto:ssteiner@fpz.hr" ssteiner@fpz.hr Additional Sources Federal Aviation Rules (FARs) Joint Aviation Requirements (JARs) European Civil Aviation Requirements (ECARs) Boeing Commercial Airplane Group, web site NASA, web site FAA, web site Definitions, Acronyms, Abbreviations AATF Aging Aircraft Task Force AAWG Airworthiness Assurance Working Group AD Airworthiness Directive AIA Aerospace Industries Association of America ATA Air Transport Association of America FAA Federal Aviation Administration, U.S.A. CPCP Corrosion Prevention and Control Program DSG Design Service Goal ESG Extended Service Goal JAA Joint Aviation Administration MRB Maintenance Review Board MSG Maintenance Steering Group NAARP National Aging Aircraft Research Program SB Service Bulletin SSID - Supplemental Structural Inspection Documents +,89 `am"eg!2"6"7""?###l*m*ԹԱԟԚ}ԚttttkhP9\mHsHhP9\mH sH hP9H*.hP9B*CJ(OJPJQJ\aJ(nHphtH hP9\hP95CJaJhP9H*mHsHhP9mHsHj}~B hP9UVjhP9UhP9B*phhP9 *hP9nHtHhOXnHtHhP9nHtHhP9nHo(tH hP9o(*9 `d)ab $a$ nVDWD@^`n4$4$GLIL #%%d&&&c''V((K));*m*-/7/j/00 1$1K1L1M222 & F#gd & F & Fm*///3/4/5/6/7/22v2w222334444;;====n?o?yBBBBC"C3C5CCCCDAAjBuBBCtDEEFFFGI,IKIoIII & F" & F & F#gd FFFFFGGGGGGGGGGG H HRHkHqHrH}H~HHHHHHHIIIII>IAI JJJ0J2JvJzJ|JJJJJJJJJJJKKKLELFLGL"hP9B*OJQJnHo(phtHhhP9\ h\ h\ hP9\jNBhP9U hhh_ hP90J'jAhP9UjhP9UhhhP9=III J+JXJvJJJK1KKKgKKKKKLFLGLHLILJLxgd & F"GLILJL"hP9B*OJQJnHo(phtHhP9$&P P. A!S"S#p$p%/ 0&P P. A!S"S#$% P ' 0&P P. 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