ࡱ> q`bjbjqPqP 4::   >s>s>s8vs|thxxxxxyyy$hddDyyDDxx(hhhDxxhDhhrߪT߫xx [Ĺ>s 3,<hA,߫߫ѬyO~VhQyyydyyyhDDDD$k>s>s Vianja Pavi i Taka  Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences in Osijek 31000 Osijek, Jgerova 9 e-mail: vpavicic@ffos.hr Evelina Mia in College of Business and Management  Baltazar Adam Kr eli 10290 Zapreai, Vladimira Novaka 23 e-mail:  HYPERLINK "mailto:evelinamiscin@yahoo.co.uk" evelinamiscin@yahoo.co.uk Exploring collocational competence of non-native users of medical English Abstract Previous research on collocations has emphasised the significance of collocations as co-occurrence and recurrence. Applied linguists exploring the acquisition of collocations made a significant contribution to the understanding of the notion of collocation. However, only few studies have dealt with the difference between collocations in general English and collocations in scientific English. The present study deals with verb collocations in medical English. Collocations are observed in the interaction of syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. The emphasis is on upward collocations (collocate and node). The study aims at analysing the level of collocational competence of non-native users of medical English in order to identify the aspects of verb collocations that require a special approach in teaching medical language. Key words: collocations, collocational competence, medical English, errors, productive knowledge Sa~etak Nalazi dosadaanjih istra~ivanja kolokacija naglaaavaju va~nost kolokacija kao supojavljivanja i rekurencije. Zna ajan doprinos eksplikaciji pojma kolokacija dale su spoznaje primijenjenih lingvista koji su istra~ivali usvajanje kolokacija kod u enika stranih jezika. Meutim, rijetka su istra~ivanja kolokacija u prirodnim znanostima. Naae se istra~ivanje bavi leksemima engleskoga jezika medicinske struke i njihovim glagolskim kolokatima. Kolokacije se promatraju u uzajamnom djelovanju sintagmatskih i paradigmatskih odnosa koje kolokacijski lanovi ostvaruju s drugim dijelovima leksika. Te~iate je na uzlaznim kolokacijama (kolokat i vor). Cilj je istra~ivanja analizirati razinu kolokacijske kompetencije neizvornih korisnika engleskoga jezika medicine kako bi se rasvijetlili aspekti glagolskih kolokacija koji zahtijevaju poseban pristup pri pou avanju jezika medicine. Klju ne rije i: kolokacije, kolokacijska kompetencija, medicinski engleski, greake, produktivno znanje INTRODUCTION This paper deals with the research of collocational competence of non-native users of medical English. The term collocation was first used by Firth in 1950-ies, but only few linguists researched this phenomenon in the scientific English. Previous research was mostly focused on collocations in general English (cf. Channel 1981, Elkhatib 1984, Ghadessy 1989, Aghbar 1990, Aghbar & Tang 1991, Fayez-Hussein 1990, Bahns & Eldaw 1993, Zhang 1993, Arnaud & Savignon 1994, Gitsaki 1999). In the scientific English collocations were addressed by Gledhill (2000) and in Croatia `piranec (2005  technical English) and `tefi (2010  dental medical English). Definition of collocations The interest for collocations started in the last two decades under different names e.g. phrasemes, idioms, fixed expressions, formulaic language, co-selection of words, phrasal lexemes (Omazi 2003: 113). The term, introduced by J. R. Firth in the 1950-ties derives from Latin (com together + locare locate) and refers to a multi-word construct which occurs in a procedure of locating, i.e. co-occurrence or combination of words on the syntagmatic level. Thus, Firth (1957) tried to explain collocations by syntagmatic and paradigmatic relation between lexical units which can be shown by two axes horizontal and vertical. Paradigmatic axis is vertical and includes words which belong to the same class and can be inter-changed. Horizontal axis is syntagmatic and refers to the ability of words to be connected with the others. For instance, in a sentence Mary drank beer, beer is in a paradigmatic relation to wine, juice, Coke and in syntagmatic with drank and Mary. Previous research on collocations has emphasised the significance of collocations as co-occurrence and recurrence (statistical/textual view, cf. Halliday 1985, Phillips 1985, Hoey 1991). The semantic/syntactic tradition in lexicology defines collocations as the abstract relation between words regardless of their frequency (Benson 1989, Howarth 1996, Cruse 1986). Finally, discourse/rhetorical model examines collocations regarding their effect and considers syntactic and semantic limitations of the fixed expression less important than their rhetorical functions (Moon 1987). One of the important contributions was made by Morton Benson, Evelyn Benson and Robert Ilson who published BBI dictionary of collocations in 1986 and divided collocations in two basic groups: grammatical and lexical ones. Grammatical collocations contain prepositions, infinitives or sentences, while typical lexical collocations consist of nouns, adjective, verbs and prepositions. This paper deals with lexical collocations, namely verb and noun combination. Collocations and non-native speakers Collocations usually represent a huge problem to non-native speakers due to interference with their mother tongue. That is why Hill (1999) suggested the creation of a term collocational competence and insisted that acquisition of lexis includes not just learning the total meaning of a word, but also its collocational span. Collocational competence was also addressed by some other researchers (Nattinger and DeCarrico, Lewis, Woolard as cited in Nattinger & DeCarrico 1992) who claim that it contributes to better understanding of difficulties encountered by language learners. The importance of acquiring collocations in language teaching has been particularly emphasised in the last two decades. Research studies have also shown that collocational errors are the most frequent mistakes made by non-native speakers (James 1998). Figure 1 illustrates the hierarchy of collocational errors as perceived by McCretton and Rider (in James 1998). THE MOST SERIOUS THE LEAST SERIOUS Lexis>spelling> negation > word order > prepositions > verb forms> concord Figure 1. Hierarchy of mistakes according to McCretton and Rider (James 1998) From the above figure it can be seen that the lexical mistakes are the most serious ones. A speaker can be understood if he/she makes a grammatical mistake. However, if he/she makes a lexical mistake there could be misunderstanding and the same problem occurs with collocational mistakes. The implications for teaching and learning foreign languages are self-evident: learners awareness of the importance of collocations as well as the problems they might encounter must be raised from the early beginnings of language learning. Applied linguists exploring the acquisition of collocations (Sinclair 1991, Francis 1993, Moon 1998, Hunston 2002) made a significant contribution to the understanding of the notion of collocation. However, only few studies have dealt with the difference between collocations in general English and collocations in scientific English. In this context, the research on the acquisition of collocations carried out by Gitsaki (1996) must be mentioned. She discussed and reviewed the literature about collocations and also made a contribution to the study of the development of collocational ability. The present study The focus of this research are lexical collocations, i.e. word combinations consisting of a verb and a noun and so-called upward collocations (Sinclair 1991: 115/116) where a is a collocate and b node. The study aims at exploring the level of collocational competence of non-native users of medical English and investigating whether their collocational competence corresponds to the level of language proficiency. The purpose of the study is to clarify the aspects of verb collocations which require special approach in teaching medical English. Research questions In order to achieve the aims of the study, the following research questions were formulated: What are the most frequent mistakes in the use of verb collocations? What is the level of collocational competence of non-native users of medical English? Are there any differences in the level of collocational competence between beginner users of medical English (1st year students) and more proficient users of medical English (5th year students and doctors)? Participants The total number of non-native users of medical English who participated in the research was 127. Out of this number, 50 students were 1st year medical students, 51 5th year medical students and 26 doctors. The research was carried out in 2009/2010 for the 1st year students and in 2011/2012 for the 5th year students and doctors. Instrument The instrument used for the research was a collocational competence test. It consisted of four groups of exercises: multiple choice, gap-fill, translation from English into Croatian and translation from Croatian into English. Each task had fifteen questions which makes the total of 60 questions (Appendix 1). The first group of sentences tested the receptive level of collocation competence and included multiple choice questions. Two groups of questions tested productive level and included gap-fill and translation from Croatian into English. The last group of questions probed both the productive and receptive knowledge since the subjects had to recognise the meaning of the collocation in English and offer its translation. Procedure Students were tested during regular classes at the School of Medicine in Zagreb and Osijek. They were given instructions in Croatian and had 60 minutes to complete the test. Doctors were tested at home and had unlimited time for answers. All tests were done anonymously. The maximum number of points for each group of questions was 15, which makes the total of 60 points. Each correct answer was given one point. In translations only the target collocations were evaluated. It was not important whether students translated other sentence parts. Also, grammatical competence and spelling were not evaluated. A collocation was marked as correct if it was attested in the corpus (cf. Mia in 2012). Results and discussion In order to answer the first research questions, the four tasks were analysed in terms of correct and incorrect answers. The results of the tests can be seen in tables 1., 2., 3. and 4. Table 1. Results of the multiple choice task TARGET COLLOCATIONCROATIAN TRANSLATIONMost frequent errors1st YEAR STUDENTS5th YEAR STUDENTSDOCTORSRespond to treatmentReagirati na lije enjeRecover to treatmentAnswer/recover to treatment__________Receive a kidneyDobiti bubregObtain a kidneyObtain a kidneyObtain a kidneyAggravate the injuryPogoraati ozljeduDeteriorate/impair the injuryDeteriorate the injuryDeteriorate/impair the injuryReplace the hipZamijeniti kukExchange the hipChange the hipExchange the hipGain weightDobiti na te~iniGet weightGet weightGet weightContract malariaDobiti malarijuObtain malariaReceive malariaObtain malariaEstablish the diagnosisUtvrditi dijagnozuDo the diagnosisPerform/do the diagnosisPerform the diagnosisTolerate painPodnositi bolSuffer painSuffer painExperience painPerform physical examinationObaviti/izvriti fizikalni pregledDo physical examinationDo physical examinationMake physical examinationMaintain physical fitnessOdr~avati tjelesnu spremnostSustain physical fitnessSustain physical fitnessSustain physical fitnessPredict a prognosisPretpostaviti prognozuDetermine prognosisForesee prognosis Determine prognosis Feel the pulseOpipati pulsTest the pulse Test the pulse Test the pulse Provide reliefPru~iti olakaanjeGive reliefGive reliefGive/offer reliefPose the riskPredstavljati rizikRepresent riskShow riskRepresent riskLoosen the secretionRazrijediti izlu evinu Weaken the secretionLessen secretionLessen secretion The first column in the table shows a target collocation, the second its Croatian translation, while the remaining three most frequent errors selected by first year students, fifth year students and doctors. As table 1 shows, all doctors selected the correct answer to the first collocation (respond to treatment). Also, none of doctors used the collocation had a new kidney, while the fifth year students used that collocations more frequently than the first year students (6% compared to 3%). None of the fifth year students used impaired knee injury while the doctors used that collocation less frequently than the first year students (11.5% of doctors compared to 38% of first year students). The fifth year students also did not use the collocation exchange the patients hip, while the doctors and the first year students selected it almost equally frequently (7.7%, i.e. 6.4%). All three groups selected equally frequently the wrong collocation grow weight, though it was used the least by the first year students (1.9% compared to 3.9% of the fifth year students and 4% of the doctors). The correct collocation contract malaria was chosen more frequently by first year students than fifth year students, but it was most frequently selected by the doctors. Most of first year students thought that the correct collocation was obtain malaria, whereas the fifth year students thought it was receive malaria. The collocations establish the diagnosis and tolerate pain did not cause problems to any group of participants. Instead of the collocation perform physical examination, the first year students (21.5%) used the collocation do physical examination, and the same mistake was made by 39.2% fifth year students and 7.7% of doctors. The majority of all three groups of participants were familiar with the collocation maintain physical fitness with 84% of doctors, 73% of first and 74% of fifth year students choosing the correct answer. The collocation predict a prognosis caused most problems for the doctors: 50% of them opted for the erroneous collocation determine prognosis, compared to the 43% first year students and 9.8% of fifth year students. Interestingly, all three groups made mistakes with the collocation feel the pulse and chose test the pulse more frequently (49% of the first year students, 27.5% of fifth year students, and 40% of doctors). The collocation provide relief did not create any problems to any group. The collocation pose risk proved generally difficult, but it is interesting to note that first year students and doctors more often decided on the wrong collocation represent risk, whereas fifth year students selected the collocation show risk. Another collocation that was found difficult by all participants was loosen secretion. Instead of the correct collocation, first year students chose weaken secretion and fifth year students and doctors chose lessen secretion more often. Table 2. Results of the gap-fill task TARGET COLLOCATIONCROATIAN TRANSLATIONMost frequent errors1st YEAR STUDENTS5th YEAR STUDENTSDOCTORSRefrain from/avoid alcohol consumptionizbjegavati uzimanje alkoholastop alcohol consumptionavoid alcohol consumptionavoid alcohol consumptionChange the bandagePromijeniti zavojReplace the bandagePut the bandagePlace the bandageDevelop a bedsoreDobiti dekubitusAppear a bedsoreAppear a bedsoreAppear a bedsoreTake blood samplesUzeti krvni uzorakSend blood samplesUse blood samplesSend blood samplesRelieve painUbla~iti bolStop painLessen painReduce painTreat the infectionLije iti infekcijuStop the infectionCure the infectionCure the infectionSustain/experience the injuryPretrpjeti ozljeduSuffer the injuryGet the injuryHave the injurySeek medical attentionTra~iti lije ni ku pomoAsk for/fined medical attentionNeed medical attentionFind medical attentionUndergo/have surgeryPodvrgnuti se kirurakom zahvatuHave surgeryHave/get surgeryUndergo surgeryAdminister/give penicillinDati penicilinPrescribe penicillinPrescribe penicillinCheck/take temperatureProvjeriti temperaturuMeasure temperature Measure temperature Carry out/perform check-upsIzvriti pregledDo the check upDo the check upCatch/pick up the flu bugPokupiti virus gripeGet the flu bugGet the flu bugContract the flu bug Table 2 summarises the results of the gap-filling task where participants were required to supply the missing verb. Instead of refrain from alcohol consumption the most frequent collocation used by the first year students and doctors was avoid alcohol consumption (51.8%, i.e. 57.7%), whereas fifth year students used stop alcohol consumption (19.6%). In place of the target collocation change the bandage first year students most frequently used replace the bandage (19.2%), while the fifth year students (31.5%) and the doctors (30.8%) used the correct collocation. First (8.4%) and fifth year students (9.8%) erroneously used appear bedsore instead of the target collocation develop bedsore. All three groups correctly used the collocation take blood samples. The first year students and the doctors most frequently supplied the correct collocation relieve pain, but the most frequent collocation suggested by fifth year students was lessen pain (13.7%). Instead of the collocation admit to hospital the first year students most frequently used send to hospital (7.4%), the fifth year students receive to hospital (25.5%) and the doctors most frequently used the correct collocation. Similarly, doctors most frequently used the correct collocation treat the infection, while the first and the fifth year students most frequently used the incorrect collocation cure the infection (19.1%, i.e. 23.5%). The collocation suffer injury did not cause problems to any group. The similar case was with the collocation seek medical attention, with the exception of the first year students who used the collocation ask for medical attention to the same extent. The doctors were the only group who mostly used the collocation undergo surgery, while the first year students used have surgery (50%) and the fifth year students have surgery or get surgery (15.7%). As for the collocation administer/give penicillin the first and the fifth year students mostly used give penicillin (54.1%). Instead of the collocation check/take temperature, the majority of the first and fifth year students used measure temperature (57.7%, i.e. 21.6%). Most doctors used the collocation perform checkups (carry out checkups was also possible), while the first and the fifth year students used do check-ups (39.7%, i.e. 23.5%). Also, the doctors used the correct collocation catch the flu bug (30.7%) (pick up the flu bug was also possible), while most first and fifth year students used get the flu bug (38.4%, i.e. 31.4%). Table 3. Translation from English into Croatian COLLOCATIONCROATIAN TRANSLATIONMost frequent translations into Croatian1st YEAR STUDENTS5th YEAR STUDENTSDOCTORSRegain consciousnessDoi k svijesti/povratiti svijestosvijestitiosvijestitiProbuditi iz komeInduce vomitingIzazvati/inducirati povraanjePotaknuti povraanjePotaknuti povraanjeIsprovocirati povraanjeGo into shockPasti u aokDo~ivjeti aokOtii u aokUpasti u aokExtend survivalProdu~iti ~ivotProdu~iti pre~ivljavanjeProdu~iti pre~ivljenjeProdu~iti pre~ivljenjeProduce painIzazvati/prouzrokovati bolProizvesti bolPotaknuti bolProducirati bolStrain the backIstegnuti leaOzlijediti leaUko iti leaNategnuti leaEradicate infectionsIskorijeniti/istrijebiti infekcijeProtiv infekcijaUkloniti infekcijeEradicirati infekcijeSuppress inflammationSuzbijati/potiskivati upaluSprje avati upaluSmanjiti upaluSmanjiti upaluUndergo dialysisPodvrgnuti se dijalizi/ii na dijalizuPodlije~u dijalizuBiti na dijaliziDijalizirati seDevelop kidney stoneDobiti bubre~ne kamence/oboljeti od bubre~nih kamenacaRazviti bubre~ene kamenceRazviti bubre~ni kamenacRazviti bubre~ni kamenacDetect a lumpOtkriti/detektirati kvr~icuOsjetiti kvr~icuNapipati kvr~icuNapipati kvr~icuImpair memoryPogoraati pamenje/atetno utjecati na pamenjeOatetiti memorijuOatetiti memorijuOatetiti pamenjeAbort migraine headachesZaustaviti migrenske glavoboljePrekinuti migrenske bolovePrekinuti migrenske bolovePrekinuti migrenske boloveRelieve nauseaUbla~iti/olakaati mu ninuOslobaati od mu nineSmanjiti mu ninuOslobaati od mu nineSpeed the onsetUbrzati pojavu/po etak/javljanjeubrzatiubrzatiUbrzati razvoj Table 3. shows the results of the third task in the test of medical English collocations which required translating collocations into participants first language from English. Generally, translations presented considerable difficulty to participants. The collocations which were translated equally by all three groups are: regain consciousness (translated as dola k svijesti), go into shock (translated as pasti u ok), produce pain (translated as izazvati bol), strain back (translated as istegnuo lea ),  undergo dialysis ( podvrgnuti su dijalizi ),  develop kidney stone (translated as  razviti bubre~ni kamenac ),  detect a lump (translated as  otkrila je kvr~icu ),  abort migraine headaches (translated as  prekinuti migrenske bolove ). The collocations which were differently translated by students and doctors are:  induce writing (translated by 35.4% first year students and 54.9% fifth year students as  potaknuti povraanje and the doctors as  izazvati povraanje ),  extend survival (translated by students as  produ~iti ~ivot and by the doctors as  pre~ivljenje ),  impair memory (translated by 23.5% first year students and 21.6% fifth year students as  oatetiti memoriju and by 46.2% doctors as  oatetiti pamenje ),  relieve nausea (translated by 18.9% first year students and 23.5% fifth year students as  olakaavati mu ninu ),  speed the onset (translated by 24.6% first year students and 19.6% fifth year students as  ubrzati and by 23.1% doctors as  ubrzati po etak ). Some collocations were equally translated by the fifth year students and doctors and completely different by the first year students. They are as follows:  suppress inflammation (translated by the first year students as  spre avaju upalu (20.9%) and by the fifth year students (33.3%) and the doctors (30.8%) as smanjuje upalu). The collocation which was the most difficult one and which was translated differently by each group was eradicate infections (translated by 22% first year students as protiv infekcija, 17.8% fifth year students as za eradikaciju infekcije and 38.5% doctors as iskorijenjivanju infekcije). Table 4. Translation from Croatian into English TARGET COLLOCATIONCROATIAN TRANSLATIONMost frequent translation1st YEAR STUDENTS5th YEAR STUDENTSDOCTORSTolerate a drugPodnositi lijekRespond well to medicineRespond well to medicationHave a good drug toleranceCatch a cold Prehladiti seGet coldGet coldGet coldDetect a cancerOtkriti rakDiscover a cancerDiscover a cancerScreen cancerCleanse/clean the woundO istiti ranuDisinfect the wound______Irrigate/debride the woundTransmit a diseasePrenositi bolestTransfer a diseaseTransfer a diseaseTransfer a diseaseGet/develop symptomsDobiti simptomeHave symptomsHave symptomsHave symptomsIdentify antibodies Utvrditi antitijelaDetermine antibodiesDetermine antibodiesDetermine antibodiesEase/relieve anxietyUbla~iti tjeskobuSuppress anxietyMitigate anxietyLessen anxietyEnhance/increase the appetitePoveati apetitEnlarge the appetiteBoost the appetiteImprove/gain/inducePrecipitate the attackPospjeiti napadInduce the attackTrigger the attackInduce the attackSuppress a coughSuzbiti kaaljStop coughSustain coughAbort coughProduce/cause discomfortIzazvati nelagoduCause discomfort/ uncomfortabilityCause discomfort/ uncomfortabilityInduce discomfortTrigger diseasePotaknuti bolestiCause diseasesProvoke diseaseInduce diseaseAdmit to hospital Primiti u bolnicuTake in the hospitalAdminister to hospitalAccept to hospitalProduce /cause improvementIzazvati poboljanjeMake improvementLead to improvementMake improvement The translation into English proved to be the most difficult task. The easiest collocation was suppress a cough which caused no problems with any group. All the groups used the collocation get a cold instead of catch a cold which was familiar to 37.2% of the first year students, 27.5% of the fifth year students and 53.8% of doctors. The first and the fifth year students translated o istiti ranu using the collocation  clean the wound instead of the target collocation  cleanse the wound . The doctors also used two collocations that no other group used and these were  irrigate the wound and  debride the wound . No group used the collocation identify antibodies and they most frequently used the collocation determine antibodies. Also, the collocation detect a cancer was familiar to all the groups, but the most frequent error made by first and fifth year students was discover cancer and by doctors screen cancer. The first year students most frequently translated prenositi bolesti as transfer illness or spread disease and the expected collocation transmit disease was in the third place. The situation is opposite with the fifth year students and the doctors the most frequent collocation is transmit disease: even 88.5% of the doctors used this collocation. The first and the fifth year students translated the collocation dobiti simptome as get symptoms while the second expected one, develop systems, was in the fifth place. The doctors used both collocations in the same percentage. As for the collocation ease/relieve anxiety, only the first year students used the former collocation, but the majority used the latter one. Other groups used only relieve anxiety. The most frequent mistake made by the first year students was reduce anxiety and by the fifth year students and doctors mitigate anxiety. The doctors also frequently used lessen anxiety. Only a small percentage of the doctors used the collocation enhance the appetite while the others, including both student groups, used increase the appetite. Most doctors (23.1%) used the collocation produce/cause discomfort, while the first and the fifth year students had problems with the noun and instead of it they used unease, illness, stress, problems and the fifth year students used uncomfort and uncomfortability. A small number of subjects were familiar with the collocation trigger disease. The first year students and the doctors most frequently used induce disease/illness and the fifth year students also provoke disease. The fifth year students and the doctors most frequently used the correct collocation admit to hospital, while the first year students most frequently used take in hospital or receive in hospital. None of the groups used the collocation produce improvement which very frequently occurred in the corpus. The first year students and the doctors most frequently used cause improvement or make improvement and the fifth year students lead to improvement. The most difficult collocations were tolerate a drug and precipitate the attack. The former was familiar to only 10.1% of the first year students, 19.6% of the fifth year students, but 73.1% of doctors had no problems with it. The first year students most frequently used the wrong collocation takes well to medicine (29%), the fifth year students responds well to medication (13.7%) and the doctors used the collocation variant have a good drug tolerance (7.7%). Instead of precipitate the attack the first year students and the doctors most frequently used induce the attack and the fifth year students trigger the attack. The doctors also used generate, potentiate, accentuate the attack. As the above analysis of the erroneous use of collocations has shown, non-native users collocational competence is rather limited. There are two types of strategies that participants in this study recurrently opted for to compensate for the lack of knowledge: the first is the literal translation of the collocations from their first language, and the second is approximation, i.e. the use of a near-synonym (e.g. the literal translation of poveati as  enlarge in the collocation  poveati apetit and a near synonym  accept instead of  admit in the collocation  admit to hospital ). The second and third research questions addressed a) participants level of collocational competence, and b) potential differences in the level of collocational competence between beginner users of medical English (1st year students) and more proficient users of medical English (5th year students and doctors). Table 5 shows the results of the descriptive statistics for overall collocational competence. Since the average score is 27.22 (SD=8.52) for the whole sample, it may be concluded that overall collocational competence is quite low. Compared to students, doctors seem to have a higher level of knowledge (M=34.42, SD=6.98). Table 5.: Overall collocational competence (descriptive statistics) nminmaxmodemeanSD1st year Ss5010402625.947.445th year Ss519431924.808.35Doctors2621474134.426.98total1279472627.228.52 In the next step, receptive, receptive-productive and productive collocational knowledge was analysed separately. The results in table 6. refer to the receptive knowledge, those in table 7. to the receptive-productive, and those in table 8. to the productive knowledge. Table 6: Receptive knowledge of collocations (descriptives) nminmaxModemeanSD1st year Ss50513109.482.055th year Ss516141010.841.87Doctors26415810.302.81total1274151010.202.23 Table 7.: Receptive-productive knowledge (descriptives) nminmaxModemeanSD1st year Ss5021276.72.285th year Ss5101397.373.21Doctors2651399.761.98total12701377.62.86 Table 8.: Productive knowledge of collocations (descriptives) nminmaxmodemeanSD1st year Ss500.59.55.54.882.075th year Ss510903.292.63Doctors26411.55.57.172.03total127011.55.54.702.70 It is no surprise that participants demonstrated better receptive knowledge and that the lowest level of knowledge was achieved at the productive level. At the level of receptive knowledge, there does not seem to be a great difference between the participant groups. However, at the receptive-productive and productive knowledge, doctors showed higher levels of knowledge than both groups of students. This can be attributed to the fact that doctors exposure to medical English is much longer and probably more intensive than that of medical students and that reading and writing professional papers in English is part of their professional life. In order to explore whether the observed differences between the levels of knowledge as well as between the three groups of participants are statistically significant, a one-way analysis of variance with post-hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test was carried out. As table 9. shows, there were statistically significant differences at the p<.01 level in test scores for all participants groups. Post-hoc comparisons (cf. table 10.) indicated that the means score for doctors was significantly higher than those of both groups of students at all knowledge levels, except for the receptive. 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Table 9.: Differences between levels of knowledge (ANOVA) Sum of squaresdfMean squareFSig.OverallBetween groups1728.6212864.31114.430.000Within groups7427.20512459.897Total9155.827126ReceptiveBetween groups47.315223.6585.069.008Within groups578.7641244.667Between groups626.079126Rec/ProdBetween groups165.483282.74111.779.000Within groups871.0371247.024Between groups1036.520126ProductiveBetween groups261.4202130.71024.508.000Within groups661.3391245.333Between groups922.760126 Table 10.: Post-hoc comparison for levels of knowledge* VariableMean.diff.St. errorSig.Overall competenceDoctor1st year8.48308 1.87127 .000 5th year9.61916 1.86499 .000 Receptive5th year1st year1.36314 .42996 .005 Receptive/Productivedoctor1st year3.06923 .64083 .000 5th year2.39668 .63868 .001 Productivedoctor1st year2.29308 .55839 .000 5th year3.87896 .55651 .000 5th year1st year-1.58588 .45961 .002 * only significant differences are shown The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level Conclusion This paper dealt with verb collocations in medical English. Their significance is manifested in the fact that they represent the connection between words on one side and the text on the other. Collocational competence of 127 subjects belonging to three different groups of non-native users of medical English was tested by means of four types of tasks targeting both their receptive and productive knowledge. The results confirmed that collocations are indeed a problematic area for non-native users of medical English. The analysis of erroneous use of collocations showed two major trends: the first is a heavy reliance on the first language and the second is the use of approximation. However, the comparison of collocational competence across the three groups of participants indicates that continuous exposure to and active use of medical English increases the knowledge of collocations. Finally, the results of the study bear important implications for teaching medical English collocations. Taking into consideration the importance of collocations on the one hand and the fact that they are one of the most difficult areas for non-native users on the other, it seems safe to conclude that the approach to teaching collocations needs to be more systematic as well as anchored in research. The present study, for example, is a contribution towards that end. It pinpointed potential problematic areas, and if it is known which types of collocations are likely to cause problems at a certain level, teachers can gradually introduce such collocations in order to facilitate the development of students collocational competence. In addition, medical students, doctors, nurses, translator as well as other non-native users of medical English would undoubtedly benefit from a good specialist dictionary or a glossary of medical collocations where such problematic collocations would be highlighted. References Aghbar, A.A. (1990). 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Woolard, G. (2000). Collocation encouraging learner independence. Teaching Collocation. Further developments in the lexical approach. Ed. by M. Lewis, 28-46. Hove: Language Teaching Publications. Zhang, X. (1993), English collocations and their effect on the writing of native and non-native college freshmen. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Indiana University of Pennsylvania.  The original number of the 1st year students who participated in the research was 297, but for the purpose of this research, 50 were chosen from that group. Mia in (2012).     hjlnprtxz~Ը԰㬤$hTGh-CJOJQJaJmH sH jhIsUhIsh6mH sH h{h6H*OJQJmH sH hpOJQJmH sH h{h6OJQJmH sH h{h6mH sH !jh{h60JUmH sH 21h:p'KC. 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