ࡱ> `  bjbjss 4}B lll( 0008h<4%B@@@@@@@$ChyEf@p%p%p%@A999p%@9p%@999 @e<}[0249@A0%B9E6`E9E96 9!D"~@@<8%Bp%p%p%p% ll Adrijana N. Vidi, PhD University of Zadar, Department of Russian Language and Literature THE MYTH OF YOUR WOMB: MYTHOLOGIZING MOTHERS IN RUSSIAN WOMEN'S AUTOBIOGRAPHY Abstract: While describing autobiographical experiences ranging from second half of the 18th to early 20th century and involving public spheres as different as philanthropy, army and poetry, parallels can be drawn between narrative representations of mothers and future public roles, or, where available, careers of Anna Labzina, Nadezhda Durova and Marina Tsvetaeva. For example, various types and various degrees of mother mythologizations seem to invariably produce predestination effect, whereas some mother narratives can be said to have apologetic function, dependent on author's sociohistorical context. Mothers tend to leave ambivalent impression, since they all employ eccentric and usually harsh bringing up methods. In some of these cases mythologization even allows for mothers' supernatural qualities and prophetic talent. The aim of this work is to examine dimensions of narrative roles given to mothers regarding autobiographers' stepping out into public spheres. Key words: Russian women's autobiography, public sphere, narrative role of mothers, mythologization. Although exceptionally rich and versatile, Russian women's autobiography had been severely marginalized up to the 1980s when Western feminist criticism brought it to the center of attention. Due to its documentary significance, it was Russian historians rather than literary scholars who took interest in these texts prior to the collapse of the Soviet Union. What followed was the broadening of existing issues concerning genre limits, referentiality, subject universality, essentialism, relations of power, etc., with specific polemics about the adequacy of Western methodology. Another widely popular concept, that of the private and public, also became an attractive frame for analyzing genre which exposes private lives and depicts other types of coming out into the public sphere. While writing a doctoral thesis in which I extensively described models of private and public in five Russian female autobiographers (Vidi, 2011), I noticed an intriguing pattern. Three authors included detailed accounts of their mothers and none of them were portrayed in a simple mimetic manner. Although imposed mythic qualities provoked questions about autobiographical referentiality, it was their function in the texts that struck my interest. All mothers seemed to have been given special roles when it comes to their daughters' stepping out into public sphere, and in doing so, they were fictionally remodeled to become greater than life, but also to become useful, so to say. Memories are not fossils enabling precise reconstruction of the past, }iva Ben i warns referring to the psychological research of M. Ross and M. Conway. "Our present emotional conditions and persuasions influence our memories modifying them towards greater consistency between our past and our present Selves" (Ben i, 2006: 158). The aim of this work is to examine mythologization strategies and narrative roles of mothers regarding authors' stepping out into public sphere in texts dealing with autobiographical experiences ranging from second half of the 18th to early 20th century. The questions I'll try to answer are the following. In what way does Anna Labzina choose and shape her mother's lessons and childhood experiences to point to the possibility of woman's self-realization through the alternative public sphere of philanthropy? How does Nadezhda Durova use her mother's biography to justify her choice of military career? And finally, in what way does Marina Tsvetaeva narrate her becoming a poet while recollecting her mother? First, let me briefly explicate my position towards the seemingly dichotomous relationship between private and public. My attitude towards autobiography in general is strongly anti-essentialist; therefore, I find any strict separation of private and public, or popular link between private and domestic, unacceptable. Concepts similar to Jrgen Habermas' bourgeois public sphere, defined as "private people gathered together as a public and articulating the needs of society with the state" (1991: 176), tend to be extremely elitist, since they exclude women in most cases. Such concepts remain idealistic and utopian, failing to perceive subordinate public spheres, which existed alongside, or even counteracted the bourgeois public sphere. Because the contrast between private and public is extremely heterogeneous, as are the phenomena covered by these two terms, I suggest an approach aware of these problems. In her study of Italian women's autobiography, Graziella Parati recognized "weak" and "strong" publics and alternative public spheres as the only ones available to women in most cases (1996: 7-9). For example, 18th century women's philanthropy would generally hardly be linked to the public sphere, but it can lead to considerable public impact. Such is the case of Anna Labzina (1758-1828), whose autobiography simulates hagiographic mode of representing life as spiritual path full of challenges to one's virtue (Clyman & Vowles, 1996: 19). In this case, challenge comes from her marriage, which forms the center of the narrative: she describes her first husband as cruel, secular person educated in natural sciences, full of the Age of Enlightenment principles, which he interprets towards sexual liberation, and which pose constant threat to her Christian principles. She was forced into this marriage when she was only thirteen because her terminally ill and rather oddly religious mother felt obliged to provide for her future. Little did she know about her future son-in-law's morals. From the first day of their shocking wedlock he tried to debase all foundations of Labzina's Orthodox upbringing by trying to impose his own. This marriage can be viewed as a kind of pedagogical experiment in which author's husband tried to introduce her to the world of carnal pleasures, often violently, and with no success at all. Her faith and stubbornness would hardly suffice as shields against these attacks were it not for her powerful protectors, her husband's superiors, whose loyalty and respect she gained through philanthropic work she inherited from her mother. Mother's narrative role is exceptionally stressed. Labzina's father died when she was five, after which her mother isolated herself and fell into a kind of hallucinatory state in which she claimed to be able to communicate with her late husband. This ended with her mother's mystic dream, in which an old men told her that it was actually a monster she communicated with, and that she was a great sinner who must repent and amend by selflessly devoting herself to philanthropic work. That's was the beginning of Labzina's training as she became her mother's constant companion and active partner in helping the needy. Mother's methods were rather cruel and eccentric, directed towards building Labzina's endurance. Not only was her diet completely ascetic, but her garment depicted as unbelievably scarce: I had no fur coat for the winter, and I wore nothing on my legs but knitted stockings and boots. During the harshest frosts she would send me out on foot, and my only warmth came from a flannel housecoat. If my stockings got wet from the snow, she would have me keep them on, saying, "they'll dry on your legs." (Labzina, 2001: 6) Fascinating enough, Labzina displays awareness of her mother's oddity, but she fails to show any sign of protest. Instead, she makes effort to add prophetic qualities to her already supernatural mother who had communicated with the unearthly, and who superhumanly sacrifices all of herself for the well being of the needy. Several people asked my mother why she was giving me such crude upbringing, but she always responded: "I don't know what her circumstances will be. Perhaps she will be poor, or she might marry someone with whom she will be obliged to travel. In that case she will not pester her husband, she will not know what caprice is, and she will be satisfied with everything. She will be able to endure anything, be it cold or filth, and she won't catch colds. If she ends up rich, then it will be easy for her to grow accustomed to the good life". It was as she had foreseen my fate, which held all these things in store for me. (Labzina, 2001: 7) Two improvised initiation ceremonies frame the evolution of matrilineality in this text. First of the two comes immediately after her mother's death, when sick and poor gather to mourn. A significant thing happens: she receives a note from prison warden asking for permission for prisoners to pay their respect to her mother. Gary Marker recognizes the significance of this episode, and also the alternative public sphere, prophetically introduced by mother. In this one small gesture her nascent worldly authority is acknowledged by the warden who symbolically passes the torch from mother to daughter. In the process she brings another dimension to intercession, one that momentarily subordinates male temporal authority to a female spiritual one. Here we see the suggestion of a third social realm faith outside both the civil and the household, in which social patriarchy is finally supine before the fatherhood of God and in which the feminine becomes truly powerful. This act of moral inheritance legitimated Labzina's own sense of public spirituality, utterly unconnected to material inheritance. (Marker, 2000: 386) This episode is obviously paired to another which acknowledges public success of matrilineal commitment. Her acts of charity during Nerchinsk days were so notable that this time her own wards gather to pay their respect before she moves to Irkutsk. Matrilineality is explicitly proclaimed and confirmed ("My honorable birth mother, here is your daughter carrying out your testament! Of course you hear and see this, and if you can be, you are glad." [Labzina, 2001: 95-96]). A surprising turn can be added in conclusion. The uttermost impact of Labzina's public activity seem not to be praises of venerable superiors, but capacity to protect herself from her husband within private domain through respects she gets from living her mother's testament. Another case of shocking upbringing is that of Nadezhda Durova (1783-1866), the first woman in Russian history to be awarded the Cross of St. George. Durova had to cross-dress to become officer in Napoleonic wars, and her refusal of female garment becomes synonymous with refusal of woman's destiny embodied in her mother's. She was the first Russian woman autobiographer to publish her text during one's lifetime, for which she obviously had to adapt her public image to a certain degree. This adaptation seems to be largely supported by giving mythologized role to her mother, as I will show. "My Childhood Years", an introduction to her military autobiography, can be read as detailed apology of her unusual choice of career, otherwise unacceptable by early 19th century standards. She begins her life narrative with a clearly mythologized episode from her mother's biography her elopement to marry Durova's father, and this childhood chapter turns out to be framed with complementary event from Durova's life her own flight to army. Comparison between the two episodes reveals intriguing parallels: both escapes are set into similar gothic ambient, both women are exactly the same age (although this wasn't true), and cinematic steps named to the last detail are taken to leave oppressive homes. Nevertheless, there seems to be one crucial difference. While her mother dresses in female garment and joins her future husband who awaits by the gate in a coach, only to trap her in another patriarchal household, Durova casts off her female clothes on a river bank, and she rides off alone into the desired freedom in a male uniform. Furthermore, while Labzina's mother prophetically raises her daughter enabling her to endure hardships to come, Durova is born physically predestined to become soldier. That would hold little significance without her mother's agency: each (mostly fictionalized) step her mother takes from the very birth merely leads her to become one. Durova couldn't have been more explicit about being pushed off her mother's lap into the cavalry, but, obviously, she couldn't witness such details of her birth, nor could she gather them from the mother she had most terrible relationship with. My mother passionately desired a son, and she spent her entire pregnancy indulging in the most seductive daydreams. "I will give birth to a son as handsome as cupid", she would say (...) So my mother dreamt but, as her time grew near, the pangs preceding my birth came as a most disagreeable surprise to her (...), and produced on her a first unfavorable impression of me. (...) "Give me my child!" said my mother (...) The child was brought and placed on her lap. But alas! This was no son as handsome as cupid. This was a daughter and a bogatyr of a daughter at that! (...) Mother pushed me off her lap and turned to wall. (Durova, 1988: 2) Besides being burdened by mother's name and surname, Nadezhda Durova Jr. also inherits apologetic burden of prenatal erroneousness. Experiencing painful labor and letting blood can be read as sacrificial introduction to the mythical birth of a double mistake a daughter, who is not a strongly desired son, and a daughter deviant in her appearance and behavior. Constant parallels frame the text, leaving close readers with a sense of conclusion. Mother turns away from her baby, however, baby also turns away from her mother, symbolically refusing her breast with a proper mythic explanation: But I evidently sensed the lack of maternal love in that nourishment and therefore refused her every effort to make me nurse. Mama decided to exercise patience to overcome my obstinacy and went on holding me at the breast, but, bored by my continued refusal, she stopped watching me and began talking to the lady who was visiting her. At this point, evidently guided by the fate that intended me for a soldier's uniform, I suddenly gripped my mother's breast and squeezed it as hard as I could with my gums. (Durova, 1988: 2) The aforementioned scene of mother's disappointment at Durova's birth is paired with her turning away to the wall on her deathbed, when recklessly informed by her husband that their daughter fled because of her excessive strictness. Durova was told about her mother's death the same day she was awarded the Cross of St. George for her undaunted courage by the Tsar himself. "When this letter was brought to her, she took it and read it through; then, after a minute of silence, she said with a sigh, 'She blames me', turned her face to the wall, and died." (Durova, 1988: 67) Mother turns her face away from her twice: when she fails to be the desired son, and when her mutant, teleologically mythologized appearance becomes potency realized, approved by the supremacy of Alexander I who was aware of her sex. Mother's bringing up methods are as gentle as those in Labzina's case. She forcefully tried to train the child to become a conventional woman. However, if one tries to distinguish her goal, ambiguity emerges. Was she just a neurotic parent who didn't know better, or she tried to trick her daughter to avoid her truly misfortunate life pattern by provoking disgust towards women's destiny? Perhaps I would (...) become an ordinary girl like the rest, if my mother had not kept depicting woman's lot in such a dismal way. In my presence she would describe the fate of that sex in the most prejudicial terms: woman, in her opinion, must be born, live, and die in slavery; eternal bondage, painful dependence, and repression of every sort were her destiny from cradle to the grave; she was full of weaknesses, devoid of accomplishments, and capable of nothing. In short, woman was the most unhappy, worthless, and contemptible creature on earth! (...) I resolved, even at the cost of my life, to part company from the sex I thought to be under God's curse. (Durova, 1988: 8) Durova's text doesn't resolve this ambivalence, but merely exposes her mother cardinal, mythologized part on her way towards freedom. The third author needs no special introduction, since she is one of the best known Russian poets, Marina Tsvetaeva (1892-1941). Her shift from poetry to autobiographical prose began in 1930s resulting from both existential and publishing problems she was experiencing in Paris exile, detached from Russia and Russian readers. It was also encouraged by frequent news of death and forthcoming death anniversaries of her loved ones, whom she mythologized, and, therefore eternalized in these texts (!00:O=F, 1988: 415-416). Although her autobiographical prose formally functions as a family chronicle for the most part, it actually tells her version of becoming a poet, "unashamedly engaging in self-exploration, mythicizing her poetic calling" (Chester, 1994: 1026). Careful reader will probably feel different degrees of mythologization in different pieces of her childhood reminiscences, depending on their central character. For example, her father's documentary depiction may seem to imply that he's left out from the myth, especially if compared to the intriguing figure of her pseudo-ancestor Ilovaisky; however, his emphasized absence can be mythologized in itself. Whereas most myths require polarization of good and evil, Tsvetaeva rearranges her past in a different manner. The entire universe of her childhood in these texts becomes polarized so she can choose the side of the nonconformists, where she places memorable relationality figures like Alexander Pushkin and her mother. She draws the line of conformity distribution between the two genealogies she was surrounded with between Tsvetaev and Ilovaisky domain. Ilovaisky is the maiden name of her father's beloved first wife, whose portrait hung in their living room, and whose belongings, so carnal and different from her mother's, frequently appear to map the conformist domain. Nonconformist are estranged, lonely, misunderstood and talented like her mother, an excellent pianist forced to give up her musical career and marry Tsvetaeva's much older widower father. Although he is the progenitor of the Ilovaisky domain, her father's grandiosely mythologized first father-in-law obviously belongs to the nonconformists. This division might be the result of the conflict young Marina, her unhappy mother's first-born, must have felt while growing up, but it now becomes utterly utilized for her purpose. Inasmuch mythic complexity of Tsvetaeva's autobiographical prose goes beyond dimensions allowed by this paper, I am constrained to a mere outline of mother's role in genesis of a future poet. Therefore, I will focus on a single text entitled "Mother and Music" to draw parallels with previously discussed parents. Like Durova's, Tsvetaeva's mother also dreams of having a son, and she also forces her daughter to become someone she was not predestined to become a musician. Consequently, Tsvetaeva also rationalizes her ambivalent breeding from her future vocation's position: she succeeds in recognizing the lyrical link between poetry and music. Mother never falls outside the lyrical, but it takes time for young Marina to properly identify her gift, while her early deceased mother lacks time to do so. When not explicitly proclaimed, predestination for the future public sphere becomes strongly felt as typically modernist, revealed through synesthetic associative streams into which she converts mother's lessons. Nevertheless, just like in Durova's case, predestination would mean little were it not for her mother's eccentric agency, but, like Labzina, she rationalizes her harshness towards understanding and gratitude: Mother was happy about my good ear and involuntarily praised me for it, and then and there after every runaway "Good girl!" she would add coldly: "But then of course you're just incidental. A good ear comes from God." And that is the way it stayed in my mind for good, that I am just incidental, that a good ear comes from God. That preserved me both from self praise and from self doubt, from any self love in art since a good ear comes from God. () And if I didn't ruin that good ear of mine, not only did not ruin it myself, but did not let life ruin and kill it either (and how I tried!), this too is the debt I owe to mother. (Tsvetaeva, 1983: 271-272) Maria Alexandovna Meyn and Nadezha Durova Sr. share similar life patterns within patriarchic context, and they display similar behavioral ambivalence. Their mythologized biographies obviously hold much significance for both daughters as they are functionally embeddable into their own life narratives. In both cases, mothers could hardly serve as positive examples: they're both obsessed with raising their daughters into something their daughters find undesirable, but in spite of their harsh methods, daughters are supplied with enough willingness to rationalize their behavior. However, Savkina's claim that Durova's mother forcefully tries to domestify young Nadezhda only to provoke disgust towards women's destiny, can be extended to Tsvetaeva only to a certain degree (!02:8=0, 2001: 169-170). Maria Alexandrovna refuses to domestify; instead, she supplies her daughter with means of stepping out from the enclosed life she was forced to choose ("So my daughters will be the 'free artists' I wanted so much to be." [Tsvetaeva, 1983: 174]), but she also acts against her daughter's predestination. And, again, both Tsvetaeva and Durova express pity for failing to satisfy their mothers' expectations: "Poor mother, how I embittered her and how she failed ever to realize that all my 'unmusicalness' was nothing more than another vocation!" (Tsvetaeva 1983: 289); "Woe to me, the first cause of all my mother's troubles! My birth, sex, traits, propensities none of them were what my mother would have wished" (Durova, 1988: 14). Final parallel occurs when Tsvetaeva mythologizes her prematurely deceased mother towards prophetic wisdom, just like Labzina did. Harshness once again becomes justified; both mothers fantastically transcend present moments and sense what future holds for them and their daughters. I find no better conclusion for this short outline than the following passage, as it sums up all mother roles mentioned so far. It is here that the prophet-mother, supernaturally endowed with early death premonition, nonconformist icon mother, and mother as her lyrical mentor come together, for eternity. Oh how mother hurried with musical notes, with alphabet letters, with the Undines, the Jane Eyres, the Anton Goremykas, with contempt for physical pain, with Saint Helena, with the one against all the many, with the one without all the many, as if she knew that she wouldn't have time for everything, no matter what she wouldn't have time for anything, so here at least this and at least this too, and this too, and then this so there'd be something to remember her with! So as to feed them full all at once for a whole lifetime! From the first minute to the last, how she gave to us and even pressed upon us! not letting herself be calmed, be depressed (or us be set at rest), she poured down, she pounded down right to the brimful impression upon impression and memory upon memory, as if into a trunk already crammed full (which, however, proved bottomless), inadvertently or on purpose? () Mother truly buried herself alive inside us for life eternal. () And what good fortune that it was all not science, but Lyricism (). (Tsvetaeva, 1983: 175-176) To sum up, Tsvetaeva's mythically re-created childhood universe is deprived of underlying ethic categories; instead, it becomes polarized by the principle of conformity. Her history of self-realization thus becomes history of recognizing her predestined place in the nonconformist, poet's domain, introduced by her mother. If rethinking worlds of Labzina and Durova in terms of polarization, two additional models emerge. Labzina's self-realization was largely connected to finding her place between Christian and Enlightenment ideologies she was compelled to live by. Her passive resistance to husband's secular ideas becomes wondrously powerful as the narrative progresses, and as she manages to gain enormous respect for her philanthropic work, especially from those who possess power to protect her. Again, author is indebted to her mother for presenting her with means for such stepping out into the alternative public sphere. Although Tsvetaeva's and Labzina's mothers both employ eccentric and rather harsh bringing up methods, they both serve as positive figures for their daughters' future, whereas that can't be said about Durova's. Her life, as told by her daughter, becomes model for this autobiography's polarization between confinement and freedom, of which Durova chooses latter, realized in a male uniform. In short, three mothers, whose depiction in these texts goes beyond documentary towards mythologization, showed their daughters three different paths towards public spheres of philanthropy, military and poetry. Even in such cases where choice of career becomes motivated by predestination, role of mothers is nohow diminished. Moreover, mothers' eccentric methods of bringing up tend to be justified by their prophetic vision and their acts connected to their daughters' best interest. Not only do mothers present their daughters with means or models for self-realization, but their mythologized re-creation in these autobiographies has potential apologetic uses. This is especially valid in Durova's case, since she obviously had to discover ways to reconcile with her socio-historical context to be able to publish such unusual military text during her lifetime. 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YCG=5 @5G8: @CA:0 65=A:0 0CB>18>3@0D8X0, AD5@0 X02=>3, =0@0B82=0 C;>30 <0X:8, <8B>;>3870F8X0. Graduated from University of Zadar, Department of Russian Language and Literature and Department of English Language and Literature in 2004. Enrolled in Postgraduate course in Literature at Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb in the same year. Has been teaching courses in 19th century Russian literature at University of Zadar, Department of Russian Language and Literature since 2005. In 2011, defended her PhD thesis entitled Women's Autobiography in Russia: Model of Private and Public. Managing editor of [sic]  A Journal of Literature, Culture and Literary Translation and member of Centre for Research in Social Sciences and Humanities.  avidic@unizd.hr  For further reading about this topic I heartily recommend introduction to Russia Through Women's Eyes: Autobiographies from Tsarist Russia by Toby W. Clyman and Judith Vowles and introductory chapters of Irina Savkina's doctoral dissertation.  Memoirs of one of Labzina's nieces she was in custody of reveal that she followed her mother's Spartan principles, although she let her nieces choose their husbands themselves (Zirin, 1994: 356).  Compare with: "If mother had lived longer, I would certainly have finished at the Conservatory and emerged a fair pianist, for the essential capacities were there. But there was something else: the one essential thing that was not to be compared with music and that sent music back to its proper place in me: a general musicality and 'fair sized' (how inadequate!) abilities. There are powers which, even in a child like that, cannot be vanquished, even by a mother like that." (Tsvetaeva, 1983: 293-294)  Tsvetaeva's use of myth is very extensive and complex in both poetry and prose, but different authors seem to agree about its purpose in the latter case. Olga Raevsky-Hughes, for example, links Tsvetaeva's mythologization with her search for a "purely subjective perspective (& ) to win a place in eternity for the past and her loved ones" (Grelz, 2004: 16), whereas Svetlana Elnitskaya sees her use of myth as therapeutic transcendence, or a certain revenge to transience (Grelz, 2004: 17). Gadiyatulaev's is aware of strong equalization between earthly and vulgar, mythic and the ideal in her work (048OBC;052, 2011: 1). Tsvetaeva herself will metafictionally explain and apply her attitude towards myth in "The House at Old Pimen". If closely read, the following passage will prove that myth for her annihilates death, but also that she is a modernist poet, unable to see world other than through the prism of myth: "And since everything is myth, since there is no non-myth, no extra-myth, no supra-myth, since myth anticipated and once and for all cast the shape of everything, Ilovaisky now emerges for me in the form of Charon, conveying across the Lethe in a boat, one after the other, all his mortal children. (...) Myth does not know the shroud; all living people enter into death as living, one with a branch, another with a book, another with a toy..." (Tsvetaeva, 1983: 234-235)  "Do, Musya, do, and this is re, do  re& " That do  re soon turn into a huge book, half as big as me  a "koob" as I said it, for the time being only into its, the "koob's", cover (& ). That's do  re (Dore), and re  mi is Remy, the boy Remi from Sans famille (& ). That's re  mi. But taken separately: do  is clearly white, empty, do vsego "before anything else", re is blue, mi is yellow (maybe  midi?), fa is brown (maybe mother's faille street dress, and re is blue  reka  river?) 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