ࡱ> ikfgh5@  kbjbj22 8XX cZZZZ,\$$B]p]]]]^&^^$R)v^^vv)]]>wwwvb]]wvww]6] 0h0ZAzoT0ΜΜΜ^0f"w1kMo^^^))UZm ZIMPACT OF DRAINAGE ON NITRATE LEACHING AND MAIZE YIELD Ivan Simunic1, Milan Mesic1, Mario Sraka1, Tanja Likso2, Lepomir Coga1 1Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb, Svetosimunska 25, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia, E-mail: simunic@agr.hr 2Meteorological and Hydrological Service, Gric 3, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia Abstract The objectives of the study were to determine the extent of nitrate leaching and maize yields in four drainpipe spacing variants (15 m, 20 m, 25 m and 30 m). The study was carried out at an experimental reclamation field during a period of five years (growing seasons). Maize was grown as the trial crop and the same agricultural practices were applied in all drainpipe spacing variants in all trial years. Nitrogen fertilization rates varied in different trial years (from 145 kg/ha/year to 175 kg/ha/year). The results indicate that nitrate concentrations in drainage water exceeded the allowable values in a larger part of the year (four to seven months) in all drainpipe spacing variants and maximum values were from 18.15 mg.dm-3 (drainpipe spacing of 15 m in 1999/00) up to 34.71 mg.dm-3 (drainpipe spacing of 25 m in 2002/03). Quantity of nitrogen leached differed from year to year and corresponded to the total nitrogen added with fertilization and annual precipitation. Statistically significant higher maize yields were achieved in most years with the drainpipe spacing of 15 m compared to other drainpipe spacing variants. Keywords: drainpipe spacing, drainage water, nitrate, leaching, maize INTRODUCTION In various soil-plant systems, pollutants may constitute a potential risk to the environment through their uptake by plants and subsequent input into the food chain, and the danger ensuing from their tendency to accumulate in vital organs of humans, animals and plants, or because of possible contamination of drinking water. The World Health Organization recommended that drinking water should contain less than 10 mg NO3-N L-1 or 50 mg NO3 L-1 (WHO, 1998). Groundwater pollution by nitrates is an international problem (Roberts and Marsh, 1987; Meybeck et al., 1989; Weisenburger, 1991; Spalding and Exner, 1993; Zhang et al., 1996; Lerner et al., 1999; Wakida and Lerner, 2002). Excessive nitrate concentration in water may lead to eutrophication of watercourses or stock watering places. If such water is used for human consumption, it may cause methemoglobinemia in infants and animals (Pratt and Jury, 1984;  HYPERLINK "http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T3Y-4FM0NYF-1&_user=4758567&_coverDate=07%2F10%2F2005&_rdoc=1&_fmt=full&_orig=search&_cdi=4959&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000050661&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4758567&md5=277d18f3a284004635efbfef6f92b352" \l "bib51" USDA, 1991;  HYPERLINK "http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T3Y-4FM0NYF-1&_user=4758567&_coverDate=07%2F10%2F2005&_rdoc=1&_fmt=full&_orig=search&_cdi=4959&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000050661&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4758567&md5=277d18f3a284004635efbfef6f92b352" \l "bib50" Tyson et al., 1992 and  HYPERLINK "http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T3Y-4FM0NYF-1&_user=4758567&_coverDate=07%2F10%2F2005&_rdoc=1&_fmt=full&_orig=search&_cdi=4959&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000050661&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4758567&md5=277d18f3a284004635efbfef6f92b352" \l "bib25" Matson et al., 1997). Potential cancer risk from nitrate-N (and nitrite) in water and food has been reported ( HYPERLINK "http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T3Y-4FM0NYF-1&_user=4758567&_coverDate=07%2F10%2F2005&_rdoc=1&_fmt=full&_orig=search&_cdi=4959&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000050661&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4758567&md5=277d18f3a284004635efbfef6f92b352" \l "bib36" Rademaher et al., 1992 and  HYPERLINK "http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T3Y-4FM0NYF-1&_user=4758567&_coverDate=07%2F10%2F2005&_rdoc=1&_fmt=full&_orig=search&_cdi=4959&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000050661&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4758567&md5=277d18f3a284004635efbfef6f92b352" \l "bib19" Jasa et al., 1999). Leaching of nitrates from soil depends on the amount, frequency and intensity of precipitation, soil properties, crop type and crop development stage, evaporation, soil tillage practices, and nitrogen fertilization (Gausey, N.R. 1991; Vidacek et al., 1996 and 1999; Nadasy and Nadasy, 2006; Nemeth T., 2006; Josipovic et al., 2006 and Nemcic et al., 2007). The problem of nitrate leaching is even more pronounced in agroecosystems of hydroameliorated fields, especially in drained soils because of changed infiltration and filtration capabilities of these soils. Total hydroameliorated areas cover 600,054 ha in Croatia, including 117,865 ha of the pipe drainage system area (Vidacek et al., 2006). Different drainpipe spacing and different nitrogen fertilization levels significantly influence soil productivity in the experimental area (Simunic et al., 2002; Mesic et al., 2007 and 2008), but different drainpipe spacings along with different agricultural practices and application of mineral fertilizers may lead to contamination of drainage water with nitrogen pollutants (Milburn and Richards, 1994, Klacic et al., 1998, Webster et al., 1999). The main goals of this research are to determine the quantity of nitrates leached in drainage water in four different drainpipe spacing variants, to find out the differences between the variants and to determine the maize yield in each variant in five different hydrological years and at different nitrogen fertilization rates in trial years. MATERIAL AND METHODS Trials were carried out at the experimental amelioration field located in the Sava river valley at the altitude of 96.4 m.a.s.l. (near the place Popovaca), on soil type defined as Gleyic Podzoluvisol. The trial involved four different drainpipe spacing variants (15 m, 20 m, 25 m and 30 m), set up in four replications. All variants were combined with gravel as contact material ( 5-25 mm) in the drainage ditch above the pipe. Drainpipe characteristics were: length 95 m, diameter 65 mm, average slope 3 and average depth 1 m. Drainpipes discharged directly into open canals. Variants covered areas of 1425 m2, 1900 m2, 2375 m2 and 2850 m2, respectively. Plastic (PVC)-annular-ribbed and perforated pipes were used. Maize was grown as the trial crop and the same agricultural practices were applied in all drainpipe spacing variants during the five trial years (1991, 1993, 1996, 1999 and 2002). Sowing was done in May. The seeding density (0.7 m times 0.2 m) was about 71,000 plants/ha, species Bc 272 Eta. Crops were maintained in a conventional way, without irrigation. Harvest took place in October and harvest residues (maize stalks and straw) were ploughed in after harvesting. All measurements were taken from May to April of the following year because soybean was planted as the next crop in rotation in May. Total nitrogen fertilization was: 175 kg/ha/1991, 145 kg/ha/93, 145 kg/ha/96, 155 kg/ha/99 and 164 kg/ha/02. NPK (7:20:30) fertilizer and UREA were applied at about 120 kg N/ha at sowing . Later, at the beginning of July, KAN was applied . Topdressing was used in both cases. Meteorological data were obtained from the Meteorological Station Sisak. Drainage discharge was measured continually by means of automatic electronic gauges (limnimeters), which were set up in each variant at the drainpipe outlet into the open canal. Drainage water was sampled every day during the discharge period. Nitrates were determined spectrophotometrically by yellow colouring of phenol disulphonic acid (APHA-AWWA-WPCF, 1992). Total annual quantities of nitrogen leached were estimated on the basis of the average monthly concentration and monthly quantity of drainage discharge. Average nitrogen concentration and yield in the different drainpipe size variants were calculated using ANOVA (p=0.05). Later, significant differences were determined using Duncans Multiple Range Test. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION According to the mechanical composition of the arable layer, the soil is silty clay, belongs to the category of porous soils having average to high capacity for water and very low air capacity as well as water permeability. Humus content is good while contents of P2O5 and K2O are very low (Table 1). Table 1: Major properties of drained Gleyic Podzoluvisol ProfileDepth (cm)Content of particles (%)Porosity (%)Capacity (%)Bulk density (kg/dm3)Permeability (m/day)pH KClHumus (%)P2O5K2OSiltClayWaterAirmg/100 g soilAp0-354746484441.350.0115.33.031.518.3Bt,g35-754548494540.0115.2Gso75-1155539464240.0117.1 Monthly precipitation values and the corresponding total values (i.e., sum of monthly precipitation values for the whole examined period) are presented in Table 2. Table 2: Monthly precipitation values and the corresponding total values (mm), Meteorological Station Sisak YearMayJuneJulyAug.Sep.Oct.Nov.Dec.Jan.Feb.MarchAprilSum1991/9215620160525015210821154578599161993/944413430119901071651125058377910251996/97713190831904613579445526458951999/00107898666957292104293763779172002/03183561309913373113547121530968 According to the analyses of total precipitation values, total drainage discharge values and total duration of drainage discharge for different drainpipe spacings (Table 3), differences are noticeable in the quantity and duration of drainage discharge, both between the tested drainpipe spacings in each growing season and between the trial years. Differences in the quantity of drainage discharge between drainpipe spacings in a particular year are smaller than differences between years. There is a strong correlation between total precipitation and total drainage discharge (r=0.79 up to 0.85) and generally in case of higher precipitation, drainage discharge is higher, and vice versa (Table 3). Table 3: Quantities of drainage discharge (mm) and total duration of drainage discharge (days) Drainpipe spacing (m)YearPrecipitation (mm)Drainage dischargeDuration of drainage discharge (days)mm% of precipitation15 1991/92 91622824.91342021923.91362521323.31393022925.014115 1993/94 102526626.01672027126.41702526826.11773027727.018215 1996/97 89519822.11402019822.11462520322.71533019922.215715 1999/00 91717419.01242017519.11262516618.11293017118.6129152002/0396827328.21432027027.91512527728.61533028529.4165  Figure 1: Correlation between precipitation and drainage discharge The shortest duration of drainage discharge was recorded in each year at the drainpipe spacing of 15 m and the longest at drainpipe spacing of 30 m. According to Petosic et al. (1998) and Tomic et al. (2002), narrower drainpipe spacing and shorter duration of drainage discharge are more efficient. Maximum nitrogen concentrations in drainage water from all drainpipe spacing variants during the trial period exceeded the concentration of 10 mg/L (Table 4). Table 4: Average and maximum concentration of nitrogen (mg.dm-3) in drainage water Spacing variants (m)1991/921993/941996/971999/002002/03Aver.MaxAver.MaxAver.MaxAver.MaxAver. Max1516.25a32.8212.90a29.1510.21a20.059.51a18.1517.37b34.322015.95b30.9312.22b29.0310.36a20.818.99a19.2417.70ab33.192515.67b31.6712.88a29.1310.58a20.349.54a20.2117.81a34.713015.26c30.6311.95c29.0710.51a19.919.47a18.4317.82a33.58Values marked by the same letter are not significantly different according to Duncans test (p=0.01) Average nitrogen concentration values in four years were in all drainpipe spacing variants above the allowable concentration, except in 1999/2000. The highest nitrogen concentrations were recorded in 1991/92 and 2002/03 (Figure 2) when higher fertilizer doses were applied (175 kg/ha and 164 kg N/ha, respectively) and higher precipitation (drainage discharge) was also recorded, especially in May and July (Table 2) after fertilization. The lowest nitrogen concentration was detected in 1999/00, when the lowest total drainage discharge of all trial years was determined, although it was not the year when the lowest fertilizer rates were applied. According to Vidacek et al. (1999), nitrate concentration in drainage water is dependent on the sampling time. As observedin Figure 2 for drainpipe spacing of 15 m, maximum nitrogen concentrations in drainage water in all years were detected in spring, soon after sowing and topdressing, which generally coincided with precipitation maxima (i.e., after higher drainage discharge), except in 1996/97, when the highest drainage discharge occurred in September. Similar fluctuations of nitrogen concentration were observed in other drainpipe spacing variants.  Figure 2: Fluctuation of nitrogen concentration in drainage water In the years 1991/92, 1993/94 and 2002/03 there were significant differences between drainpipe spacings (p=0.05). Nitrogen concentration in drainage water exceeded the MAC in four (1996/97) to seven months (1993/94)Figure 2. Similar results for nitrogen concentrations in drainage water were obtained by Kladivko et al. (1991), Rossi et al. (1991), Simunic et al. (2002) and Bensa et al. (2007). According to the analyses of total annual quantity of nitrogen leached through drainage water (Table 5), there are differences both between the tested drainpipe spacings in each year and between trial years. Differences between drainpipe spacings in the quantity of nitrogen leached in a particular year are smaller, but there are greater differences between years. Lower nitrogen leaching was recorded in all drainpipe spacing variants in the periods 1996/97 and 1999/00, when the quantity of drainage discharge was the lowest and lower nitrogen rates were applied than in 1992/93 and 2002/03. Higher leaching occurred in the years 1991/92, 1993/94 and 2002/03 (either larger amount of nitrogen added with fertilization or higher drainage discharge). Table 5. Quantity of nitrogen leached through drainage water (kg.ha-1) and percentage of nitrogen leached relative to the total N added with fertilization Spacing variants (m)1991/921993/941996/971999/002002/03kg.ha-1%kg.ha-1%kg.ha-1%kg.ha-1%kg.ha-1% 1535.720.434.423.720.314.016.610.747.228.7 2030.717.533.222.920.614.215.810.248.429.5 2533.919.434.623.921.514.815.910.349.430.1 3034.919.933.222.921.014.516.210.550.831.0 According to Mesic et al. (2007), the quantity of nitrogen leached is in linear correlation with the quantity of drainage discharge. These results (Table 5) are in accord with the results obtained by Skaggs and Gilliam (1985) and Klacic et al. (1998). Different quantities of leached nitrogen are influenced by climate conditions.The total amount and distribution of precipitation (drainage discharge), crops grown, their development stages, as well as by the quantity of fertilizers applied and the time of their application. In this case, if there is higher amount of precipitation in spring when maize needs less nitrogen and less water for its development, then it results in higher nitrate leaching. If other crops (wheat or alfalfa) were grown, nitrate leaching would probably be different because of different root depth, different growth, etc. The mean values of maize yield, in dependence on the drainpipe spacing variant, are presented in Table 6. Table 6. Duncans Multiple Range Test of the mean values of maize yields (t/ha) in dependence on drainpipe spacing Drainpipe spacing (m)Dry maize grain yield (t.ha-1)19911993199619992002158.80a6.43a5.82a6.23a6.62a208.13b6.35a5.34b6.16a6.44a257.86c5.58b4.92c5.77b6.12b307.17d5.21c4.35d5.62b5.87b Values marked by the same letter are not significantly different according to Duncans test (p=0.01) Maize yields varied both between different drainpipe spacings and between trial years. Generally, in all trial years the highest yield were achieved with the drainpipe spacing of 15 m, and the lowest yields were achieved with the drainpipe spacing of 30 m. This may be due to the very low soil permeability (Table 1) and longer stagnation of surplus water in soil. According to Tomic et al. (2007) and Mesic et al. (2008), the efficiency of a particular drainage system has an influence on yields. The highest yields in all variants were achieved in 1991, when the highest fertilizer rate was applied (175 kg N/ha) and the lowest yield in all variants was obtained in 1996, when the lowest fertilizer rate was applied (145 kg/ha). Further, with the same agrotechnical practices and the same hybrid, the quantity of fertilizer applied affected the yields in all variants on this hydroameliorated soil. Although with smaller differences in fertilizers added their influence on higher yield, were not detected, like in 1993 and 1999, but yield could be influenced by other factors such as fluctuation and amount of yearly precipitation, date of topdressing, etc. This paper shows that there were significant differences in drainage water contamination with nitrates among the tested drainpipe spacings in the years 1991/92, 1993/94 and 2002/03 (p=0.05), but in years 1996/97 and 1999/00 there were no significant differences. Nitrate levels in drainage water exceeded the MAC in all drainpipe spacings in four (1996/97) to seven months (1993/94). The highest nitrate leaching (2002/03) concurred with the highest drainage discharge. The highest maize yields in all trial years were achieved with the drainpipe spacing of 15 m, and therefore this variant should have priority in the agroecological conditions of the central Sava valley and should be managed pursuant to the requirements of sustainable agriculture. Acknowledgement This research was initiated and supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology of the Republic of Croatia (Project, No. 178131-Systems of Water-Soil-Plant Management) and the Water Management Agency Hrvatske vode, Croatia. REFERENCES APHA-AWWA-WPCF. 1992. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. Washington, DC 20005: 156-157. Bensa, A., Vidacek, Z., Coga, L., Sraka, M., Vrhovec, D. 2007. Influences of pipe drainage and fertilization on nitrate leaching. 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In: Bogardi, I., Kuzelka, R.D. (Eds.), Nitrate contamination-exposure, consequence, and control: NATO ASI Serial G. Ecological Sciences, vol. 30. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 309315. WHO, 1998. Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. 2nd Edn. World Health Organization, Geneva. Zhang, W.I., Tian, Z.X., Zhang, N., Li, X.Q. 1996. Nitrate pollution of groundwater in northern China. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 59:223-231. Corresponding author: Prof. Ivan Simunic, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb, Svetosimunska 25, 10000 Zagreb,. Croatia tel.: ++385 1 23 93 750, fax: ++385 1 23 94 099, e-mail: simunic@agr.hr Prof. Ivan Simunic, Ph.D. Prof. Milan Mesic, Ph.D. Mario Sraka, Ph.D. Prof. Lepomir Coga, Ph.D. Faculty of Agriculture University of Zagreb Svetosimunska 25 10000 Zagreb,. 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