ࡱ> Y[TUVWX_bjbj:: X{9\X{9\O((66d6d6d6D666(7:T6@X=bELFFF|I& RFUT$2#d6I" 4:Proposal for common lynx management strategy for Slovenia and Croatia (Prijedlog zajedni ke strategije upravljanja risom u Sloveniji i Hrvatskoj) (Predlog skupne strategije upravljanja z risom v Sloveniji in na Hrvaakem) Authors: Aleksandra Maji Skrbinaek, Toma~ Skrbinaek, Magda Sindi i , Miha Krofel, uro Huber, Josip Kusak, Hubert Poto nik and Ivan Kos Editor: Aleksandra Maji Skrbinaek The production of this document has been financially supported by European Union within the Neighbourhood Programme Slovenia-Hungary-Croatia 2004-2006 www.dinaris.org 2008 Supporting documents produced within the DinaRis project (alphabetically): Analyses of habitat, food sources and competition Ecology and status of prey species in the study area Population dynamics model and viability analyses of Dinara lynx population Proposal for common lynx management strategy for Slovenia and Croatia Attitudes of general public and hunters towards lynx: Analyses of questionnaire survey Use of methods of DNA isolation from non-invasive samples for ecological and population genetic studies Use of scent sticks for common Croatian- Slovenian lynx monitoring Persons that contributed to common lynx management strategy for Slovenia and Croatia at workshops and with their ideas and remarks (alphabetically): Aleksandra Maji Skrbinaek, Univerza v Ljubljani, Biotehniaka fakulteta, Oddelek za biologijo, Almedina Zuko, Univerzitet u Sarajevu, Veterinarski fakultet, Alojz Marn, Ministrstvo za okolje in prostor, Alojzije Frkovi, Povjerenstvo za praenje populacija velikih zvijeri, Andrej Andolaek, Kmetijsko gozdarska zbornica Slovenije, Anton Marin i , Zavod za gozdove Slovenije, Bla~ Kr~e, Lovska zveza Slovenije, Ciril `trumbelj, Lovska zveza Slovenije, Dalibor Briaki, Nacionalni park Risnjak, Damir Kri~, Lova ki savez Primorsko-goranske ~upanije, Damir Prokopovi, Hrvatske aume, Damjan Vr ek, Zavod Republike Slovenije za varstvo narave, Dario Majnari, Hrvatske aume, Darja Slana, Druatvo Dinaricum, Dragan Turk, Nacionalni park Risnjak, uro Huber, Sveu iliate u Zagrebu, Veterinarski fakultet, Gregor Bol ina, Lovska zveza Slovenije, Hubert Poto nik, Univerza v Ljubljani, Biotehniaka fakulteta, Oddelek za biologijo, Ines Turk, Hrvatske aume, Ivan Kos, Univerza v Ljubljani, Biotehniaka fakulteta, Oddelek za biologijo, Ivana Malnar, Nacionalni park Risnjak, Jana Kus Veenvliet, Zavod Symbiosis, Janez op, Jasna Jeremi, Dr~avni zavod za zaatitu prirode, Jelena Domini, Sveu iliate u Zagrebu, Prirodoslovno-matemati ki fakultet, Bioloaki odsjek, Jerko Kastelac, Javna ustanova za zaatitu i o uvanje prirode, Li ko-senjska ~upanija, Josip Kusak, Sveu iliate u Zagrebu, Veterinarski fakultet, Josip Tomai, Park prirode Velebit, Lovro Gudac, Javna ustanova Priroda, Primorsko-goranska ~upanija, Magda Sindi i, Sveu iliate u Zagrebu, Veterinarski fakultet, Marijan Malnar, Hrvatski lova ki savez, Marko Modri, Primorsko-goranska ~upanija, Matko `kalamera, Javna ustanova Priroda, Primorsko-goranska ~upanija, Miha Krofel, Univerza v Ljubljani, Biotehniaka fakulteta, Oddelek za biologijo, Miljenko Gaaparac, Nacionalni park Risnjak, Miroslav Janea, Nacionalni park Risnjak, Miroslava Jauk, Hrvatske aume, Nasir Sinanovi, Univerzitet u Sarajevu, Veterinarski fakultet, Nives Pagon, Druatvo Dinaricum, Patricija Okovi, Dr~avni zavod za zaatitu prirode, Rudi Pintar, Hrvatske aume, Sonja Desnica, Dr~avni zavod za zaatitu prirode, Sonja Rozman Bizjak, Zavod Republike Slovenije za varstvo narave, Tea `ili, Nacionalni park Sjeverni Velebit, Toma~ Skrbinaek, Univerza v Ljubljani, Biotehniaka fakulteta, Oddelek za biologijo, Tomislav Gomer i, Veterinarska fakulteta Univerze v Zagrebu, Vedran Sliijep evi, Sveu iliate u Zagrebu, Veterinarski fakultet, Zoran Prale, Lova ki savez Primorsko-goranske ~upanije, Zrinko Jakai, Ministarstvo regionalnog razvoja, aumarstva i vodnoga gospodarstva, }eljko `tahan, Ministarstvo kulture Republike Hrvatske, Uprava za zaatitu prirode. Proposal for common lynx management strategy for Slovenia and Croatia  TOC \o "1-4" \h \z \u  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257752" Content  PAGEREF _Toc198257752 \h 1  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257753" Background  PAGEREF _Toc198257753 \h 4  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257754" Working method  PAGEREF _Toc198257754 \h 4  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257755" Project area  PAGEREF _Toc198257755 \h 4  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257756" Needs for common management  PAGEREF _Toc198257756 \h 4  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257757" Description of species  PAGEREF _Toc198257757 \h 5  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257758" Population status  PAGEREF _Toc198257758 \h 8  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257759" results of research  PAGEREF _Toc198257759 \h 9  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257760" Food habits  PAGEREF _Toc198257760 \h 9  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257761" Biological aspects (inbreeding and PVA)  PAGEREF _Toc198257761 \h 10  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257762" Telemetry research  PAGEREF _Toc198257762 \h 10  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257763" Food availability  PAGEREF _Toc198257763 \h 10  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257764" habitat Description  PAGEREF _Toc198257764 \h 11  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257766" Understanding of space in Croatia and Slovenia from the lynx perspective  PAGEREF _Toc198257766 \h 11  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257767" Availability of adaquate space and potential lynx numbers  PAGEREF _Toc198257767 \h 15  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257768" Lynx prey and prey management  PAGEREF _Toc198257768 \h 17  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257769" current management  PAGEREF _Toc198257769 \h 19  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257770" Legal framework  PAGEREF _Toc198257770 \h 19  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257771" International conventions and conservation status of lynx  PAGEREF _Toc198257771 \h 19  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257772" National lwas and conservation status of lynx  PAGEREF _Toc198257772 \h 20  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257773" Croatia  PAGEREF _Toc198257773 \h 21  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257774" Slovenia  PAGEREF _Toc198257774 \h 21  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257775" Impact on preey species  PAGEREF _Toc198257775 \h 23  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257776" Common goals  PAGEREF _Toc198257776 \h 24  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257777" Population goals  PAGEREF _Toc198257777 \h 24  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257778" spacial goals and habitat connectivity  PAGEREF _Toc198257778 \h 24  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257779" Connectivity of Dinaric lynx population with other ones in Europe  PAGEREF _Toc198257779 \h 24  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257780" Common activities required to reach goals  PAGEREF _Toc198257780 \h 25  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257781" lynx population monitoring and history of lethal control  PAGEREF _Toc198257781 \h 25  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257782" Collecting of data on lynx presence  PAGEREF _Toc198257782 \h 27  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257783" Snow tracking  PAGEREF _Toc198257783 \h 27  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257784" Photo-monitoring  PAGEREF _Toc198257784 \h 27  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257785" Hair traps  PAGEREF _Toc198257785 \h 28  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257786" Telemetry monitoring  PAGEREF _Toc198257786 \h 28  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257787" Genetic  PAGEREF _Toc198257787 \h 28  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257788" Coordinated genetic methodlogy and and monitoring of genetic status po population  PAGEREF _Toc198257788 \h 28  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257789" Analyses of current situation  PAGEREF _Toc198257789 \h 29  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257790" Monitoring of genetic viability status  PAGEREF _Toc198257790 \h 29  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257791" Spacial distribution of population uptake  PAGEREF _Toc198257791 \h 29  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257792" Augmentation of population  PAGEREF _Toc198257792 \h 29  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257793" Prey base and habitat quality  PAGEREF _Toc198257793 \h 30  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257794"  Data on prey  PAGEREF _Toc198257794 \h 30  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257795" Habitat connectivity  PAGEREF _Toc198257795 \h 30  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257796" Proposals for conflict resolution  PAGEREF _Toc198257796 \h 31  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257797" Damages  PAGEREF _Toc198257797 \h 31  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257798"  Impact on prey species  PAGEREF _Toc198257798 \h 31  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257799" Illegal hunting  PAGEREF _Toc198257799 \h 32  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257800" Public informing and involvement  PAGEREF _Toc198257800 \h 32  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257801" Principles of participation  PAGEREF _Toc198257801 \h 32  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257802" Transborder exchange of experiences of interest groups  PAGEREF _Toc198257802 \h 32  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257803" Coordination of relevant government institutions  PAGEREF _Toc198257803 \h 33  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257804" Coordination of monitoring and research  PAGEREF _Toc198257804 \h 33  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257805" Other neighbours  PAGEREF _Toc198257805 \h 33  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc198257806" Porposal of actions and financial aspects of strategy execution  PAGEREF _Toc198257806 \h 33  Background Methods of work The base for the preparation of the Proposal for common lynx management strategy for Slovenia and Croatia were bilateral workshops. At workshops participated the representatives of government and scientific institutions, as well as the representatives of various interst groups from both countries. In total 50 persons from 23 organizations participated. All decisions were made by consensus of all participants. The text of the Strategy proposal was prepared by individual participants based on workshop results. Project area The Strategy proposal was an outcome of a need to continue collaboration of Croatia and Slovenia after ending of DinaRis project. The proposal is relating the lynx populations living in Croatia and Slovenia that are according to the Guidelines for population level management of large carnivores (prepared by the Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe for the European commission) part of Dinaric population and of Eastern Alpine population. Dinaric population includes all lynx in Slovenia south and south-east of highway Jesenice Ljubljana Trieste, in Croatia in Gorski kotar and Lika, as well as lynx in western Bosnia and Herzegovina. Eastern Alpine population includes rarely dispersed lynx individuals in the area of Slovenian Alps and the border areas with Austria and Italy. Dinaric population grew from six individuals reintroduced in 1973 from Carpathian range. On international level it is a small endangered population threatened by illegal killing, limited prey base and expected genetic homogenicity. Eastern Alpine population consist of individuals dispersing from Dinaric population and from experimental reintroductions in Austria in the period 1977 to 1979. As it consists only of much dispersed individuals, it is a small and critically endangered population. The main threats are illegal killings and development of traffic infrastructure with consequent habitat fragmentation. The main barrier is the highway Jesenice Ljubljana Trieste. Authors of the Strategy proposal hope that the cooperation in research and management will eventually spread to all countries that share those populations. The ultimate goal is the merging of two populations into one Dinaric-Alpine population. Needs for common management In addition to the fact that Croatia and Slovenia do share the common population of lynx and its prey, the high quality natural area that continually extends over the border, the participants of the workshops listed the following needs for common management: This is a small population in a small area. Habitat in each country is too small for a viable population, so they both together have a greater chance to reach feasible conservation status (FCS). Exchange of experiences, positive and negative, resulting in finding better solutions for problems, transferring the experience from one country to other. Research and study do have synergic effect. The project will define the common methodology. Merging data from both countries will make the interpretation easier and will give better results of monitoring and research. Coordinated acting will enable easier reaching of population goals, which would not give satisfactory results without both sides. Common responsibility will be continuous as the situation in one country influences the other one and vice versa. Common representation of local (Slovenian and Croatian) interests in European Union. Together it will be easier to reach the critical mass of interested public. Common management by Slovenia and Croatia would be a show case for other countries. Enhancement of good neighbourhood relations and collaboration in other areas of interest. Description of species Class: Mammalia mammals Ordo: Carnivora carnivores Family: Felidae cats Subfamily: Felinae real cats Ordo: Lynx lynx Species: Lynx lynx (Linnaeus, 1758) Eurasian lynx In addition to Eurasian lynx there are three more lynx species: Iberian lynx (L. pardinus, Temminck, 1872), Canadian lynx (L. canadensis Kerr, 1792) and red lynx (L. rufus, Kerr, 1792). Based of fossil remains the Eurasian lynx have colonised Europe in the wrm interglacial period. Towards the end of wrm interglacial the climate got colder and it took approximately 20 000 years till the end of ice age. By then the lynx population has established in forested areas of Dinaric Mountain range. When the climate became warmer and the forests spread the range of lynx did spread as well. Fossil and sub fossil remains of Eurasian lynx were found in Slovenia: four at early Pleistocene and four Holocene sites. The only find of lynx remnants from prehistory in Croatia comes from the Velika peina cave on the Ravna gora Mountain in the north-western part of Croatia and is about 10,000 years, which means the end of the last ice age. One sub fossil lynx scull was found in Croatia in Be~urova cave near the mouth of the river Neretva. Based in this limited findings and the data on ecological conditions it can be concluded that the species has been continually present in todays Slovenia and Croatia since early Pleistocene and during whole Holocene. Historically has the Eurasian lynx been distributed over the whole Europe from Scandinavia to the Mediterranean and Black seas, except the Pyrenees. The influence of man to the environment has been growing with negative effect on lynx population. Autochthonous populations survived till today only on Balkan, Carpathian Mountains, Scandinavia, Baltic, parts of Poland and in European part of Russia. With reintroductions today lynx do appear in Dinara, Alps, Jura, Vogues, Bavarian and umava forests, and in some other parts of France, Germany and Czech Republic. The estimate for 2001 is that in the area of Europe about 8000 lynx lived. In Europe the Eurasian lynx is living mostly in forested habitats, both coniferous and deciduous, but in Asia it also uses open areas including semi deserts and areas above timber line. At the far north lynx wanders into tundra as well. Although lynx is not really big enough to be grouped with big cats, it posses certain physiological, ecological and ethological features like: long life, hunting prey over double predator mass, large territory, low population density, late maturity, and the style of hunting. Eurasian lynx has relatively short head with a brush of long hear on the tip of ears, as well as short tail with black tip. Males are bigger exhibiting sexual dimorphism. Lynx body is 70 to 130 cm long, height at shoulder is about 65 cm, and tail length is 10 to 30 cm. The mass of adult lynx is between 12 and 35 kg. The average mass of lynx shot in Slovenia and Croatia was 22 kg for males and 18 kg for females. The coloration of lynx fur varies among populations as well as between animals from the same population. The basic colour is greyish with some reddish or yellow hare. The hump is darker, while the belly is white. Black spots or stripes may be spread over the whole body, but may be missing as well. The yaws of lynx contain 24 milk or 28 permanent teeth. The paws have five fingers in front and four in hind, all with sharp retractable claws which are important hunting tool. Eyes and ears are important in finding prey, but the sense of smell is week. Lynx lives alone except the female with kitten. The territoriality is well pronounced and works as a factor that regulates the population density. Home range of one male usually overlaps with ranges of several females, and its size is very variable, depending mostly on the prey density. In Europe the recorded ranges of males were 180 to 2780 km2, and of females 98 to 759 km2. Lynx is predominantly nocturnal with the peaks in the late evening and early morning. The mating season is from mid February till the end of March followed by 67 to 74 days of pregnancy and giving birth to 2 to 3 kitten. Female reaches maturity in two years and male in three. In wild they may live up to 17 years and in captivity up to 25 years. There is about 50% of naturally mortality of sub adults. Today the main cause of death is man. The list of prey species of Eurasian lynx is long, mostly depending on the species of ungulates that live in the lynx range. The exceptions are the most northern areas where hare is the most common prey. In the Dinaria range lynx mostly preys on ungulates like roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) and red deer (Cervus elaphus). Occasional prey, mostly for sub adults and females may be door mouse (Glis glis), and to lesser extend other rodents, some birds and domestic animals. The typical feeding scheme is: depredation feeding on the prey body returning to feed on the same prey abandoning the eaten remains new depredation. To keep the remains of the prey lynx tries to hide it away of sight, and by covering with leaves or snow. There are rare examples of two lynx depredations in one day. In average lynx eats about 2 kg of food per day. Description of population During the old and mid Pleistocene the area of todays Slovenia and Croatia was the most likely inhabited by Lynx issiodorensis, although there is no direct evidence of that. Based on fossil findings we conclude that in the early Pleistocene and whole Holocene here lived Lynx lynx until its extinction (extermination) by the end of 19th and the beginning of 20th century. Speculations on findings the remains of Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) have been disproved. In the early seventies of the 20th century the idea of returning of lynx arose in the area of Ko evje in Slovenia. The initiator was the Swiss hunter Karl Weber, the guest or the hunting reserve Rog (today LPN Medved). In January 1973 three female and three male Eurasian lynx were taken from the quarantine in the ZOO in Ostrava (today s Slovakia) to the prepared quarantine in Ko evje. In November 1973 the tracks of all six released animals were tracked in the snow. Females stayed in the larger area of Ko evski Rog, while males wandered to Mala gora and Velika gora. Two females were recorded to have one kit each, and one had two. In the next years the population grew in numbers and range. The initial mortality was low what can be considered as the key factor for the population survival in its initial stage. The population growth continued along with the regular hunting. It spread in direction north-west towards Triglav and Italy, as well as towards south-east into Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The first lynx in Croatia has been seen in Risnjak National park in June 1974, and the first was shot on Snje~nik in 1978. The positive attitude of hunters towards the lynx reintroduction has certainly been the key factor of its success. Also the prey base has been in favourable condition. By 1990s lynx settled the western half of Slovenia and in south it reached the Bosnian mountains. The hunting continued, while the reproduction seems to have been overestimated. While lynx was continually present in western and southern part of Slovenia, the individuals did appear in Karavanke, Kamniko-Savinjske Alps, and at Menina. Probably 30-40 lynx live south of highway Ljubljana-Kozina. North of this road probably there is about 10 individuals. In Croatia it was continually present in Gorski Kotar and Lika (Fig. 1). Some individuals showed up in Istria and in Dalmatia. Estimates are that up to 60 lynx live in Croatia. We suppose that the reintroduced lynx population did grow in numbers and range till the mid 1980s. It stabilised till 1990s when the decline of numbers begun. Figure  SEQ Slika \* ARABIC 1: Lynx range in Slovenia and Croatia Research results Food habits The main parts in the lynx diet are roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus) with 80% share in the stomach content of lynx from Slovenia and Croatia (Rajkovi et al., 2000). Other ungulates (Artiodactila) like wild boar (Sus scrofa), muflon (Ovis aries musimon) and chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) do occasionally appear in certain areas. In the stomachs of sub-adult lynx and some females the remains of slam mammals, and domestic animals (probably from bear feeding sites) were found. Considering that the roe deer followed by red deer are the most common lynx prey, it means that in average one lynx needs 42 ungulates per year (80% of 52 weeks). Biological aspects (inbreeding and PVA) Significant factor for the population dynamics of lynx in Slovenia and Croatia might easily be the fact that the whole population grew from only three couples from Slowakia. Considering that the assumption that lynx got extinct in the area at the beginning of the last century is correct, it is likely that 17 generations did breed among themselves what could have lead to the loss of heterozigosity and negative consequences in reproductive success. If the population founders have not been related at all (what is quite unlikely) the inbreeding would be less pronounced. The reintroduced individuals arrived from the same area, so it is likely that they were related. In any case the habitat quality (prey density) significantly influences the population dynamics of the Dinaric lynx population. Genetic studies are under the way and are expected to show the picture of population. The results may help the decision about eventual additional interventions (augmentations) into the lynx population. Telemetry studies So far 11 lynx were radio-collared on Slovenian side. Eight of them had the classic VHF transmitters and three were gathering data by GPS receivers. Three lynx with VHF transmitters provided too few data to determine their home range sizes. The same is true for the two lynx that were tracked at the time of preparing this strategy. One female in the area of Meniaija in Logaaka planota in five months used 62 km2 (minimal convex polygon). The home ranges of four lynx tracked in the Ko evska area were 132 and 222 km2 for females and 156 and 200 km2 for males. Young female with GPS-GSM collar at Sne~nik used in eight months 526 km2 (95% MCP), and the main area (50% Kernel) was 45 km2. Based on the data collected so far we conclude that the home ranges of lynx in Slovenia are over 100 km2. Usually the home ranges of males and females overlap, while the overlap within the same sex is less exhibited. In Croatia 7 lynx were tracked with comparable results like in Slovenia (Table xx). Table x. Basic data on telemetry tracked lynx in Croatia since 2001. Lynx IDAGE (y.)sexTracking startTracking endn daysN locationsFateL01-Bela0.6F16.12.2001.04.01.2002.199DisappearedL02-Ivan0.5M25.10.2005.24.12.2006.42512Collar droppedL03-Ivek1.5M01.12.2006.29.03.2007.11851Collar failedL04-Koko0.5M04.01.2007.04.01.2007.01Died (pneumonia)L05-Luna0.6F07.11.2007.-99TrackedL06-Tisa4F08.02. 200801.09.2008206663Road kill (highway)L07-Dinko4M14.02.2008.25.08.2008.193134Collar failed Habitat quality considering the prey base Prey availability is the main factor determining the quality of lynx habitat. The main lynx food in Slovenia and Croatia is roe and red deer. The estimation of needed prey density can be calculated from the daily lynx needs for food. In average lynx needs 1.75 (1.0-2.5) kg of meat per day, or, depending on the individual prey size about 50 animals per year. The biomass of prey species is related to their reproductive success. Based on available data, lynx can take 2 15% of yearly prey population, but locally it can reach even 40%. There are very few studies in Europe on the lynx influence on prey populations. In a hypothetical model of a population density of one lynx per 100 km2 it can be calculated that lynx takes 0.56 of roe deer per km2 per year if it was the only prey species. Study showed that in Slovenia and Croatia roe and deer contribute with 80% in lynx diet (Rajkovi et al. 2000), what means 0.45 roe or red deer per km2 per year. To satisfy the needs of other predators (wolf in the first place) and for hunting purposes, the needed density of ungulates should be above 5 individuals per km2. It is supposed that the recent roe deer density in Croatia (and in Slovenia) is considerably below this figure, resulting also in a lynx density much below one per 100 km2. Habitat description Lynx spatial needs One individual lynx lives on the area from 100 to over 600 km2. They are territorial animals. Male and female territories do overlap while the animals of the same sex exclude themselves. Studies from other countries, as well as from Dinara area show the mean female range about 100 km2, and male range about 185 km2. The bigger range for males was found in other species, but the general home range size depends on the prey density. The importance of vegetation cover is related mostly to the needs of prey species. Some lynx populations in Asia do live in areas with minimal vegetation cover. Human density might easily influence lynx habitat quality through the prey density. Bigger human density also means more frequent encounters and human related mortality. Also in such a case more damages on livestock might be expected. Traffic infrastructure causes habitat fragmentation, direct mortality and influences the prey distribution. Habitat fragmentation can also be caused by larger urban areas, and to some degree the big rivers and high mountain ridges. Understanding of space in Slovenia and Croatia from the lynx perspective Adequate lynx space can be recognised by habitat modeling. We produced such a model for Northern Dinarids and based on current lynx distribution it seems to be a good estimator for habitat evaluation. In the Dinara range there are relatively big pieces of good areas (habitat patches), that are more or less bordered by linear structures (highways, local roads, rivers) or by bigger unsuitable areas. Habitat patches are often connected by marginal areas where lynx is occasionally present. In Alps such habitat patches are often bordered by high ridges. Figure  SEQ Slika \* ARABIC 2: Suitability of habitat for lynx in Slovenia and Croatia On the maps of suitable habitat it can be seen that the lynx inhabited area is well connected even with the Alps. There is less suitability outside Dinara and Alps. The patches of suitable habitat in Karavanke and in Slavonia are isolated by large unsuitable areas, highways, high mountain ridges and rivers. Colonisation of these patches, that could help establish the Dinara - Carpathian meta-population, is currently not likely. In most of the continually inhabited lynx areas the permeability of highways is quite good. The network of highways Karlovac - Rijeka and Bosiljevo - Split divides the lynx habitat in four parts. Although they do influence the habitat quality the permeability for all animals, including lynx, is satisfactory due to existing crossing structures. ( REF _Ref198214323 \h Table 1, Fig. 1). Figure  SEQ Slika \* ARABIC 3: The network of f transportation structures in the lynx range in Dinarids and toward Alps. The structures where animals can cross highway Bosiljevo - Rijeka are 25% of the total road length, including one green bridge (Dedin). Highway Bosiljevo - Sveti Rok has much less objects of over 80 m wide or 12,6% of total highway length, but at all key locations there are 4 green bridges that with other objects do ensure the minimal necessary permeability. Table SEQ Tabela \* ARABIC 1: The width of objects on the section from Bosiljevo to Grobnik of the highway Zagreb-- Rijek Bosiljevo- VrbovskoVrbovsko- TuhobiTuhobi-GrobnikSummType of structureWidth [m]NWidth [m]NWidth [m]NWidth [m]NBridge008983008983Overpass20240400406Underpass0040211531155Tunel163828129927811004512Viaduct220841689719726586917Green bridge001001001001All together3866810896262365101712744Section lenghth (m)13632435721133068534Share of objects (%) 28,36%25,0%20,9%25,0% The situation on the highway Ljubljana Koper is opposite. It has been constructed years before and has a very few adequate passages for mammals, so it is most likely a serious barrier between Dinara and Alps. It prevents the movements of animals toward Alps and inhabits development of Dinara Alps lynx meta-population. Figure 4: Fragmentation of lynx habitat by highway Ljubljana-Koper. For the Dinaric and Apine lynx populations, as well as many other animal species this is the only way of connection. The most important section for lynx crossing is between Vrhnika and Postojna. The characteristics of this section are given in Table 2. Near Nanos there is a good crossing structure but it is of decreased value due to a large highway intersection in the area. Table  SEQ Tabela \* ARABIC 2: List of potential crossing objects on the highway Ljubljana - Koper, section Vrhnika - Postojna. [m]%Length of section47.899100.00%Viaducts5961.24%Underpasses, bridges1180,25%Total passages7141.49% As shown, only 1.48% of this section is permeable for large mammals. The mayor part of is under the viaduct Ravbarkomanda, in the vicinity of Postojna. Under this viaduct there is a railroad and the local road, as well as fenced pastures, so its permeablity is poor. All other passages (overpasses, underpasses) there is a total of 118 m (0.25%). We conclude that this section is poorly permeable for lynx. Telemetry studies of a female lynx collared at Ljubljanski Vrh do support this. During several months she moved along the highway but never crossed it. Although a previous study, that used photo traps, recorded several lynx crossing the highway passages, we conclude that such events were rather exceptions than the rule, especially considering the total length of the section. Capacity of available space for lynx Lynx is a territorial species. Territories of males and females do overlap, but the animals of the same sex are excluded, especially in the central parts of the home range. Studies from other countries show that the average female ranges are about 100 km2, and of males about 185 km2. Males need larger ranges as it is in other species, and for both sex the need range size is counter proportional to the prey density. This allows estimate of the potential population size in the given space and in ideal situation. Review over both countries and over recognized habitat patches is given in  REF _Ref198221756 \h Table 3. Figure  SEQ Slika \* ARABIC 5: Distribution of habitat patches with continuous and occasional lynx presence in Slovenia and Croatia (calculations are given in  REF _Ref198221756 \h  \* MERGEFORMAT Table 3). Table  SEQ Tabela \* ARABIC 3: Habitat patches with permanent and occasional lynx presence: total sizes, adequate surfaces, and potential number of animals. AreaPresenceSize [km2]Adequate [km2]Potential malesPotential femalesSjeverna LikaCroatiaPermanent160214537,914.7IstraCroatiaPermanent2892451,32.5Gorski kotarCroatiaPermanent120611186,011.3Zapadna LikaCroatiaPermanent184316148,716.3Isto na LikaCroatiaPermanent4624316317,131.9CoastCroatiaPermanent2321740,91.8Meniaija - KrimSloveniaPermanent5133331,83.4Ko evska - Sne~nikSloveniaPermanent12819715,29.8RogSloveniaPermanent10838564,68.6Trnovski GozdSloveniaPermanent12089094,99.2Permanent138821083659109Croatia979777674278Slovenia408530691731BosiljevoCroatiaOccasional4302431,32.5ZdihovoCroatiaOccasional53250,10.3RibnikCroatiaOccasional105290,20.3Biokovo and ZagoraCroatiaOccasional6823962,14.0CoatsCroatiaOccasional45350,20.4CoastCroatiaOccasional2021841,01.9Bela KrajinaSloveniaOccasional2721100,61.1 i arija - BrkiniSloveniaOccasional6484112,24.2Zahodna DolenjskaSloveniaOccasional2551540,81.6Poso jeSloveniaOccasional2021270,71.3Predalpski svetSloveniaOccasional4192571,42.6Julijci - Osrednji del*SloveniaOccasional4563982,24.0Julijci - Zahod*SloveniaOccasional2772551,42.6Julijci - Sever*SloveniaOccasional5755112,85.2Tromeja*SloveniaOccasional1861680,91.7KaravankeSloveniaOccasional160512997,013.1Occasional641346022546Croatia151791259Slovenia489636902037Total202941543883156Total Croatia1131486794788Toatal Slovenia898167593768* The model was not tested for Alpine area and is probably not valid as well.Lynx prey and prey species management Main lynx prey in the Dinara range is roe deer, red deer, and to minor extend chamois. Lynx do hunt on smaller prey as well, mostly when larger prey is not available and is especially important for younger lynx in the sub-adult phase until reaching full independency. Game management, including the main lynx prey species is quite different in Croatia and Slovenia. In Slovenia hunting management is regulated by yearly plans prepared by Slovenian Forestry Service and approved by relevant Ministry. The supervision is done by hunting inspection. The plans are done for bigger areas which are then subdivided to hunting units. Ten years plans are also in preparation. Hunting quotas are decided based on degree of the plan fulfillment in the previous years. In Croatia the hunting management is regulated based on plans made for ten years periods. Hunting inspection supervises the hunting units. Hunting management plans are prepared by qualified authorities selected by managers of hunting units. Hunting plans are reviewed by commission of the Ministry for Regional Development, Forestry and Water Management. It concerns mostly to smaller units of 1000 to 30000 ha. Future plans are to manage deer, chamois and wild boar on larger areas. Hunting quotas are decided based on damages by game and considering the presence of large carnivores. Weak point of the Slovenian hunting management is that various interest groups do gain high quotas by claiming damages caused by game, and resulting in unsafe prey numbers left for large carnivores. Weak point of the Croatian hunting management is that game is managed on small areas. Inspection is not equally efficient in all areas and poaching is present, resulting in low game densities, with the recorded bag lower than in Slovenia. Prey numbers left for large carnivores are unsafely low. Current management Legal background International agreements on lynx protection Red list IUCN (Source: http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/12519/summ, 6. April 2008): gives to lynx the global status of near threatened NT species as evaluated in 2002). Main factors the threaten lynx are habitat loss or degradation, hunting and decreases of prey densities. It is also estimated that the global number of lynx is decreasing. Convention on Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) was ratified by Slovenia in 1999 (Uradni list RS t. 17/1999), and by Croatia in 2000 (NN MU 6/00). It lays down all the measures to be taken by the European countries in the protection of wild species as specified in relevant Annexes and their habitats. In Annex III to the Bern Convention the lynx (Lynx lynx) is indicated as a protected species whose population may be managed along with control and protection measures prescribed. Hunting with fire guns or with traps may be permitted according to traditional management of member states; unless it threatens the population Hunting must be permitted on the precisely defined areas or forbidden if necessary for the population recovery. The selling of animals or their parts must be regulated. Bern Convention accepted the Action plan for the conservation of Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) in Europe, where are, among other countries, also listed the recommendation measures to be taken in Slovenia and Croatia. The Directive on the Protection of Natural Habitats and Wild Fauna and Flora (Habitat directive) (**Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the Conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora (OJ L 206 22. 7. 1992)) No. 92/43/EEC is one of the essential regulations governing nature protection in the European Union countries. The lynx has been listed in Annex II to the Directive covering plant and animal species that are of interest for the European Union and whose conservation requires the designation of special areas of conservation (SAC) as a part of the Natura 2000 ecological network but not as a priority species. It is also included in Annex IV covering animal and plant species of interest for the European Union that requires a strict protection. Convention on International trade in endangered free-living animal and plant species (Washington convention, CITES), was signed by Slovenia in 1999 (Ur. l. RS no. 31/99; NN MU 12/99). Croatia and Slovenia, as signatories, has committed themselves to take all appropriate and necessary legal and administrative measures at the national and international level so as to ensure the conservation of the lynx and its natural habitat, or rather its stable population, which is at the same time a genetic reservoir and a potential source enabling this species to colonize other European countries from which it has disappeared. Lynx is listed in Appendix II, among the species that are: a) not necessary threatened by extinction, but my become that, if the trade with them is not restricted or controlled b) are similar to the species from the Annex I that it is not easy to distinguish them These resolutions are relevant for lynx as it has fur attractive for fashion industry, so the trade with it should be strictly observed. Convention on Biological Diversity (Slovenia ratified in 1996, Ur. l. RS, 30/96, MP, no. 7, Croatia ratified in 1996, Official Gazette - International Treaties NN MU 1/6/96) aims to protect biological diversity, sustainable use of its components, and fair sharing of profits from use of genetic sources. The signatory parties are obliged to integrate the postulations of this converting into the national laws. Alpine Convention Protocol for application of Alpine Convention of 1991 on nature protection and landscape organizing (Ratified by Slovenia, Uradni list RS 19/95 MP 5) Protocol for application of Alpine Convention of 1991 on nature protection and landscape organizing binds each signatory party to follow all agreements on protection and eventual restoration of Alpine landscape for wild plants and animals and the diversity of habitat types by following the ecological rules. Convention on access to information, participation of public in decision making and legal security in environmental requests (Aarhus convention) ratified by Croatia in 2006, and by Slovenia in 2004 and already almost completely implemented in the legal system. The goal of convention is To reach the protection of justice for each person of recent and future generation, to live in the environment adequate for health and welfare, each section guarantees the right of access to information ass well as participation in decisions in environmental matters. Aarhus convention is the first international convention that is completely targeting the participation in democracy. It is based on the doctrine of sustainable development for whish is the public agreement the main tool in deciding on environmental matters through involvement of interest groups. Execution of this convention will have the significant influence in decision processes, like the one on the lynx management issue. National regulations and documents governing the lynx conservation Croatia In 1995 the Lynx management plan for Croatia was produced and it has been revised in 2007. It was published by MK and DZZP. The representatives of various interest groups participated in its production. In 1982 the lynx was originally protected by the Decision on the Special Protection of the Lynx (Official Gazette No. 22/82) based on the 1976 Nature Protection Act. Nature Protection Law (Official Gazette No. 30/94 and 162/03) accepted the obligations of Croatia to sign all international conventions. Based on Bern convention the two categories of protected species have been established: strictly protected that follow the rules of Act from 1994 and the protected species that may be used following additional regulations. Game animals are in this category. Rulebook on the Protection of Certain Mammal Species (Mammalia) (Official Gazette No. 31/95) lists lynx as a strictly protected species that is prohibited to harass and disturb in its natural life and free development, to hide, sell, buy and seize or in any other way acquire and stuff the protected animal. It is also prohibited to export, bring out of the country and import the protected species from foreign countries. The activities mentioned may be exceptionally permitted for scientific c and research purposes with the previous approval of the ministry competent for nature protection. Rulebook on the Compensation Scheme for Damages Caused to a Protected Species (N.N. 84/96), states that the killing of a lynx may be punished by a fine of 35,000 kunas. Law on Hunting (Official Gazette Nos. 10/94, 29/99, 14/01); Animal Welfare Law (Official Gazette No. 19/99); Strategy and Action Plan for the Protection of Biological and Landscape Diversity of the Republic of Croatia NSAP (Official Gazette No. 81/99). This strategy also requests production of action plans for conservation of endangered species. Slovenia Resolution on the national program of environment protection for the period 2005 - 2012 (Uradni list RS, no. 2/06) National program for environment protection (NPVO) is the basic strategic document aiming the improvement of living conditions and conservation of natural resources, with specifications for various areas. It is prepared on the base of European environmental regulations. In the article 94 it specifies the needs for protection of nature including the production of the National nature protection plan. In this plan sets the rules for conservation of biodiversity and natural values for the 10 years period especially aimed to: - protection of biodiversity with the program of conservation of plant and animal species, their habitats and ecosystems; - protection of natural values by program of establishment of protected areas and restoration of natural values; - ways of fulfillment of international commitments; - education on the nature protection; - information of public on the nature protection; - determination of financial sources for nature protection. Nature protection law (Uradno pre ia eno besedilo (ZON-UPB2) Uradni list RS, no. 96/04). Nature protection law within the scope of biodiversity conservation prohibits the decrease of the wild plant and animal populations, the threats to their habitats and their living conditions that may threaten them. Resolution on protection of free-living animal species (Uradni list RS, no. 46/04, 109/04 in 84/05) Lynx in Slovenia is a protected species. Any encroachment in their natural life cycle is prohibited except exceptions that are determined into details. Resolution of ecologically important areas (Uradni list RS, no. 48/04) This resolution determines the rules for protection of habitats types and free-living plant and animal species living there. It also decides the areas and protection measures for large carnivores. Resolution on specially protected areas (NATURA sites 2000) (Uradni list RS, no. 49/04 in 110/04) Natura 2000 sites are determined as well as the conservation targets that are to be followed in the interest of European Union. It also determines the potential protected areas and the ways of their protection. 2.1.6 Forestry law (Uradni list RS, no. 30/93, 67/02, 115/06 in 46/07) The lay defines the protection, maintenance and use of forests with the aim sustainable use of forests and ecosystems and their functions. General goals Population goals At the workshops we determined the biological, management and sociological factors as relevant for reaching lynx population goals. As a compromise we defined the desired Slovenian-Croatian lynx population size at 150 adult individuals, what represents about 63% of capacity of habitat where currently lynx is present in both countries. Space goals and habitat connectivity Fragmentation and degradation of habitat is among the main factors threatening lynx and other large carnivores in Europe. The transportation network creates habitat patches among which is the movement limited or impossible, thus preventing the spreading to new areas and limiting reproduction by failure in finding sexual partners. Habitat in the Northern Dinarids is mostly in the good state. It should be maintained like it is. Currently the main fragmentation factor is the highway Ljubljana-Koper, making the individuals that find themselves west of this road isolated and not apt for long term survival. To protect them and other endangered species there will be a need to improve the existing passages and to construct new ones (green bridges). Outside Dinarids there are some good lynx habitats where currently there is no lynx (Figure 2): Karavanke, Kamniko-Savinjske Alps and Pohorje in Slovenia and parts of Slavonija in Croatia. For spreading of lynx to Karavanke the highway Ljubljana-Koper should increase its permeability, as well as the permeability of area in the Slovenia - Austria - Italia triangle. The acceptance of lynx in that area must be ensured by promotional and informational campaigns, as well as by profound studies of attitudes and knowledge about lynx. Colonization of areas in Slavonija is unlikely to occur from the Dinaric population due to large unsuitable habitats and numerous linear obstacles. Connectivity of Dinara lynx population with other European populations Currently the only realistic options for connection are between two other populations Alpine and Balkan. Lynx from Dinara population do cross to Alps but such movements are less frequent than desired, mostly due to low permeability of highway Ljubljana Koper. As the long-term conservation goal must be the establishment of Alpine Dinaric meta population, the permeability of this road should be improved. Balkan population is potential subspecies and is highly endangered. As a local ecotype it should be protected by all means. The contact with Dinara population may mean the genetic weakening of Balkan one. There are no physical barriers among these two populations and it is probably only the matter of time and the critical number of animals when they will get into contact. In eventual plans to augment Dinara population (to increase its viability) the potential problems for Balkan population should be considered and given the priority. Common activities to reach goals Monitoring of population and history of lethal control Till 2007, when the Slovenian-Croatian project on Transboundary cooperation in management, conservation and research of the Dinaric lynx population (DinaRis) started Croatia did not follow the organized data collection on all lynx signs following the SCALP methodology, as it was already the case in Slovenia. However, this method was also found imperfect, so it was upgraded. An information platform has been built within the project. It allows systematic and precise data collection on lynx presence in both countries and giving insight in current distribution and frequency of appearing. Slovenian partners developed a software and web portal for broad interested audience to input data and leading to building of encyclopedia type of knowledge about lynx. On geo-web site one can view and sort data based on GIS following the principles of open encyclopedia (like Wiki Wiki) with open source programs. The program is aimed to get data from hunters, foresters, backpackers, naturalists and others who frequently go to nature. The coordinated monitoring of Dinara lynx population has to follow the same method to enable application of long-term conservation measures. There are three activity types in the monitoring of endangered species like lynx: Monitoring of distribution based on occurrence of population Population status: collection of demographic, population (genetic) and ecological parameters (food, habitat, competitors) Conservation measures for lynx population Problems for monitoring of species like lynx: small population, low density, large individual home ranges avoidance of man hard sightings in wild Possible population data include: Recording the data on lynx presence: sightings, photographs, hearing voices, foot prints, scats, hair (SCALP criteria) Searching, collecting and analyzing the lynx prey Collecting of non-invasive genetic samples: hair (e.g. on smelling sticks), scats, urine Collecting of tissue genetic samples from dead and life captured lynx Systematic collection and study of dead lynx: hunted, traffic or other reasons of death. Analyses of museum samples in hunters trophies (morphometry and genetic samples). Organization of monitoring: The extensive nature of collection of limited data requires the common strategy in basic methods, including common and synchronized monitoring Data collection for integral monitoring of lynx population includes: Field research and data collection by specialists and researchers Close cooperation of hunters and foresters in the field to enable understanding and trust Distribution of printed materials to the broad public in the lynx range targeting participation in collection of data on lynx and its prey. Functioning of web site for lynx monitoring Common data base (accessible to researchers and managers according to the rules agreed) Following is the short description of individual methods and actions necessary to perform the monitoring of Dinaric lynx population and its conservation. Collecting the data on lynx presence Continuous lynx monitoring in Slovenia was organized after participation in Alpine expert meetings, called SCALP (Status and Conservation of the Alpine Lynx Population), which has the aim to revitalize Alpine lynx population and is executed by the Slovenian forest service. In Croatia the same monitoring is to be established. SCALP system has three categories of data consirering theire reliability: C1 the first category includes undisputed data on lynx presence (hunted, traffic killed or lynx body found dead from other reasons, photographs of animals, confirmed genetic data), C2 in the second category are classified the data on lynx presence that were controlled by lynx specialists. These are data on damages on domestic animals, tracks and scats, lynx wild prey and other checked signs, C3 in the third category go all other llynx data that were not examined by lynx specialists. The active monitoring is to receive the special attention as it is the most intensive method of data collection: snow tracking, photo and hair traps. Snow tracking Tracking in snow is a traditional method to get insight into the species list and the numbers of large mammals, and is familiar to who manage or study these species: hunters, foresters, biologists, backpackers. With additional knowledge on certain species this method can easily be adapted to be productive with information in the winter condition after the fresh snowfall. It is especially applicable to study activity and distribution of wolves, but is also useful to study lynx. Very valuable are data on social composition of families female with her offspring, what represents an important demographic parameter. Detailed explanation of actions and methodology for snow tracking should be developed upon the Strategy adoption. Photo-monitoring Photo monitoring is done by use of so called photo traps. In the selected area a series of automatic cameras are set at locations that were repeatedly visited and marked by lynx. The individual recognition is possible due to specific distribution of dark dots on the lynx fur coat, and consequently the photographed animals can be counted. The upgrading of the system may include the traps for hair that provide noninvasive samples for genetic studies. Hair traps To get the lynx hair sample a peculiar behavior pattern of the species is exploited: it is the lynx custom of marking territory by rubbing objects in the home range. In the Dinaric range we used wooden poles equipped with catching textile (Velcro) and barbed wire. As a special type of lure we used was a smell mixture of catnip and castoreum oil. The smell attractants have to be refreshed at least once per month. This method is additionally apt for areas with the lack of snow during the winter season. Hair samples do proof the presence of lynx but they are also the source of genetic material. As much as possible the simultaneous monitoring by hair traps should be undertaken in both countries. The exchange of genetic results should also be done. Telemetry tracking Collars with radio transmitters are to be used to study the habitat requirements of lynx that includes various ecological features. Lynx have to be live caught with special traps and chemically immobilized. In this process all the measurements and standard samples are to be taken. The collar size has to be adequate for the age and mass of the animal. Due to large home ranges that may include the crossing of state boundaries we recommend the use of satellite GPS-GSM collars. They enable locating the animal with accuracy of several tenths of meters that makes possible to find the remains of lynx prey or the den with kits. Telemetry data do give insight in the use of the area, size of the home range, size of the core area, and the eventual overlap of territories. Such data are a key for estimation of potential population size. Both countries should participate in this research especially along the border as home ranges of individual animals may stretch on both sides. The data exchange and eventual collaboration in the field should be prompt particularly in the case of border crossing. Other precious types of data from this method are on the lynx mortality (causes) in reproductive success. Genetic Due to low number of reintroduced animals to the Dinaric population it can be expected that inbreeding might cause problems like reproductive repression. Therefore the continuous genetic monitoring is crucial. In both countries genetic studies should be done and the methods are to be coordinated. Coordinated genetic methodology and monitoring of genetic state of population Relevant scientific research institutions in both countries will coordinate the methods of genetic analyses to ensure the complete comparability of results. That will also include the mechanisms of data exchange and supervision of quality of methods of analyses. All changes in analytical protocols will be coordinated at regular meetings. Data from both countries will be analyzed as one set. In analyses and in publications that will follow the rights of all that significantly contributed will be acknowledged. Study of current state The analyses of existing genetic samples form both countries will evaluate the current genetic state of lynx population. Population Viability Analyses (PVA) will be performed by use of genetic data, data on monitoring the lynx range, literature data and the computer models to predict the threat of population extinction. Monitoring of genetic state of population viability The tissue samples of all recorded dead lynx should be deposited in the central gene bank in each of the two countries. Gene banks will be taken care by relevant scientific institution. Next will be all available data for each sample recorded. Samples collection must be a continuous activity. New samples must be analyzed in the due time and the data from both countries used for new evaluation of the genetic state. New PVA should be done in timely intervals with all new data. It should simulate options in management and predict the effects on population. Spatial distribution of population uptake Augmentation of population It might be that the release of new lynx individuals will be the unavoidable condition for the population survival. It is therefore necessary to study the need for such intervention in the view of its conservation correctness. In the planning of potential augmentation the goals of conservation of Balkan lynx population should be acknowledged. Due to autochthonous character of Balkan population, as well as its highly threatened status it should be given priority to the conservation of reintroduced Dinaric population with the goal of avoiding conservation conflicts. Any decision on augmentation should be brought with consensus of relevant professional and political institutions in both countries. Upon eventual decision on augmentation the technical details should be defined. The exact plan will be delivered and all identified participants will have to obey it with the goal of successful outcome. Due to sensitivity of such intervention the augmentation should be supported by all interest groups and the conditions must be prepared in the detailed way that the experiment of augmentation will be done precisely and fully to be successful. Prey base and habitat quality Data on prey Man is, along with wolf, one of the most important competitors of lynx for its prey and space. With legal and illegal hunting man significantly influences the main lynx prey populations. It may be considered that the extinction of lynx at the beginning of 20th century was due to pronounced decrease or even extinction of ungulate populations. The decrease of prey numbers effectively decreases the density of lynx and markedly increases their mortality. Coordinated management of prey species is therefore very important on the whole lynx range. The important role for that in Slovenia has ZGS, as the party that decides the hunting quotas of ungulates. In Croatia the hunting inspection work should be intensified, and the ungulate management should be done on big areas. By international participation the management of prey species should be coordinated with the aim of increasing their numbers, especially of roe deer in the lynx range. Habitat connectivity The spatial needs of lynx should be considered in all actions that may influence environment in the lynx range. That should be included in the broader initiative of habitat connectivity based on the principle of no species left behind, as the example of specific protection of habitat for lynx may exhibit the negative umbrella effect, because the specific needs for some charismatic species may be insufficient of other threatened species. 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h-h7h7@[Coaal^q(gdFFsgd4&$a$gdK[$a$gd$ & F*x^`xa$gd$ & F*&`&a$gd$a$gd~<>W{}0`aklEISZx^fpqh:h h-hhv hQKH hvKH h&KHh-hQKH hw=KH h~iKHh-hKH haS-KHh-hK[KH hNV#KH hzKH>q$3>@?G'(,/0[pq{ &3r069:qij¾º鶲飘hhhmH sH hhmH sH hr:h(=h;h\h< hHh4IhzFhzFmH sH hzFhzFmH sH h^eh$ h-hh ]h"zh1h1:(0[:`jp. L Y | _ gd4&gd4&gd4&$a$gd$a$gd$a$gdHLop. / K L X Y b p q      [ ]    { |    ^ _   TpWfgkls^etᶺUhOA h-hUhXhsh6+hY|fhjCjh51h-E%h-E%H*h  h.Tih-E%h\45h h-hhEsufv•˗ۗGG & F#gd Mgd Mgd*gdHgdagdNYgdw gdH7IgdalVgdFgdULjubljana-Koper should be increased to ensure the habitat connectivity in the triangle Slovenia Italy Austria. Among measures for prevention of lynx damages on livestock it should be promoted the use of guarding dogs and closing the animals over night in safe enclosures instead of fencing large pastures with electric fences which contribute to habitat fragmentation. Preventive measures should be preferred by legal acts and in space planning to avoid habitat fragmentation. Sanation of interventions once done is much harder and more controversial. It may also provoke negative response of local community to nature conservation in general. Prevention and solving of conflicts Damages As all large carnivores, lynx as well may produce damages on livestock, especially on small ruminants. To achieve their optimal protection recommended is education on the best damage prevention methods. The state budget should put aside the co-funding of protection that is effective to protect livestock of lynx damages. We recommend that the policy of livestock subventions should be designed to support the breeding of non-conflict domestic species in the lynx range. The damages done by lynx are compensated by relevant ministries. The states may reevaluate the process of examination and payments of damages if needed. Damage examination is done by evaluators trained through number of years and by field experience. Relevant state institutions of both countries should prepare manual for damage evaluations. Each conservation measure produces certain costs. The species that holds the legal protection status and causes certain difficulties to local people, who are not allowed to simply exterminate it, must cause cost to be paid from the state budget. However, all interest groups should continually look for ways to make the damages as minimal as possible. One of the reasons for that is to prevent that certain species becomes too expensive for the state which may in turn look for change of conservation status. The other reason is that big damages, in spite of compensations, inevitably do produce negative public attitude towards the species. Therefore the cost of compensations should be as small as possible, and the best investments are in the prevention of damages. With good arguments the managers should be convinced that the budget money used in prevention will save much more in payments for compensations. The care should be taken to keep the damages low. Influence on prey species Influence of lynx on prey species is not completely understood and more research in that direction should be done. Studied should be the influence of competitors and carcass eaters on frequency of lynx depredations and the effective influence of lynx on the prey numbers and the degree of selectivity in hunting (the share of animals that were week and likely would not survive the winter). Such data will be a great contribution to hunting management that will take care of influence of lynx and other large carnivores. Illegal hunting In spite of strict legal protection each year as share of lynx population dies in illegal hunting. That is done by non-consius hunters and by ones that do not understand the threatened status of the species, and more rarely by farmers as lynx damages on livestock are rather rare. In Croatia and Slovenia, as many hunters as possible should be informed on the lynx threatened status, should be included in the study of species to reach better monitoring and probably to decrease the illegal killings. The sanctions for illegal killings should be more strict (e.g. permanent confiscation of weapons), the legal process should be more efficient and the hunting guards should have wider rights. The education should include hunters but also the wider public, as well as the elementary and secondary school pupils. It should teach about biology but also about myths that give wrong impression about lynx status in Croatia and Slovenia. Informing and including public in decision making The goal of including public is to get the data on the most prevalent positions, as well as some specific questions in search for the best solutions and compromises that will be the most acceptable for different interest groups. Consensus is the ideal goal. National strategies and action plans describe the inclusion of public on the national level. The state coordinates methods of quantitative surveys of general public and interest groups about the lynx management, in order to collect useable data. The managers and professionals at regular meetings do exchange the results of public inclusion in decision making and production of national action plans. The guidelines considering target groups and adequate methods: wider public, separately the inhabitants of the lynx range: indirect methods are more adequate (questionnaire surveys). special interest groups (hunters, shepherds, professionals, various GOs and NGOs): indirect methods are adequate (questionnaire surveys) but direct methods should be used as well (participation of representatives of interest groups at workshops, visits, focus groups...). The precondition for efficient inclusion of public is good information. Therefore the national strategies and action plans should include the informing of public. The states do coordinate information campaigns when needed. The degree of public knowledge should be surveyed by means of questionnaires. Principles of participation Trans-border exchange of experiences with interest groups Each 4 years the workshop should be organized with representatives of interest groups from both countries. The results of management in the previous period are presented and analyzed, and then the eventual changes are proposed. Coordination of relevant government institutions Relevant government institutions do establish the international commission for execution of lynx management plan (large carnivores). Commission discusses events and proposes solutions. Coordination of monitoring and scientific research All professionals that participate in monitoring and scientific research do meet once a year. Separate thematic groups may meet more often when required and do exchange the data permanently. Other neighbors The goal is that the bilateral cooperation becomes the basis for management with the whole lynx population in this part of Europe including B&H, Austria and Italy. The representatives of those countries will be invited to yearly meetings. Action plan for financial execution of strategy The state budget will have to cover the most of expenses of population monitoring as part of duties defined by international conventions. For research projects, that are the essential part of any efficient protection, part of cost should also be covered from the state budget as well. The other sources of funds for research and other innovative actions for conservation projects (usually on the level of pilot projects), should be searched from international and domestic non governmental sources, some economical groups that find their interest in promotion, or on international bids in the area of nature conservation where the funds may be requested with good arguments (line in the DinaRis project).      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