ࡱ>  "5@/bjbj22?XX zElllR<bfffv\҆bL>>>>P Q Q~$R Tl%$+Pll>>9NxNxNxl >>~Nxl~NxNxlx20Z> @d/fsb$ ɫT_v&_HZbb_ZQ %[NxatigeQPoQQbbnf,x"bbf M.Sc. Anita Silvana Ilak Perauri The Institute for Agriculture and Tourism, Department Economics and rural development C. Hugues 8, 52440 Pore , Croatia  HYPERLINK "mailto:Anita@iptpo.hr" Anita@iptpo.hr Phone 00385/52/408329 Fax 00385/52/431659 Acronyms BEBasic education EFAEducation for AllERPEducation for Rural PeopleFAOFood and Agriculture OrganizationGDPGross Domestic ProductICTInformation and Communication TechnologyMOESMinistry of Education and SportsNGONon Governmental OrganizationOECDOrganization for Economic Cooperation and DevelopmentRDS Rural Development StrategyTCPTechnical Cooperation Project  Ilak Perauri Anita Silvana, Gautier Patrick MULTIPLE EFFECTS OF EDUCATION IN RURAL AREAS ACTION RESEARCH FOR DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES IN CROATIA 1.Summary The strategy of development in rural areas of Croatia includes several factors. Among them one is education. The education system in Croatia has a number of institutional, infrastructural and regional characteristics that are a frame of research for this paper. Rural areas confront additional factors like population migrations, bad socio-professional structure, distances from cities etc., which have consequences on education quality. Lower quality of the education system in rural areas are of great concern in rural development as it give a base for a better professional structure, it can influence on diminished migrations (staying in the villages for education, not migrating to cities) and rise the quality of living through several open activities in schools as meeting points for children and the whole population. The objectives of this paper were 1) to present the findings of an analysis of basic education in rural areas of Croatia and, 2) recommends measures to improve access and quality of education for rural people in order to better contribute to rural development. Therefore, after a brief presentation of the context and justifications of this paper, the document presents for each of education level, the findings displayed as problems and, from these problems, proposes measures to ensure that education in rural areas is contributing to rural development. 2. Context and justifications 2.1 General aspects Within its recent history (nineties), Croatia has been affected by war. It is considered that, 40 % of the territory suffers from war effects, such as damages on infrastructure, presence of refugees and orphans, internal displacement of people, migrations to other countries and psychological effects on people. As it has been explained in (Ilak Perauri, A.S, 2003a) that the recent conflict has affected specifically the rural areas leading to situations such as an increasing importance of rural exodus to cities and foreign countries and a reduction of agricultural and tourism activities. Obviously, specific education programs such as the on-going programs for children with post-war syndromes, reconstruction of schools in war-affected areas, ethnic minorities programs, etc, are currently helping to rebuilt what has been destroyed physically and mentally. However, seven years after the end of the conflict, a lot still needs to be done to rehabilitate and adapt the whole educational system to the new post-war context. The agriculture sector represents only 7% of GDP and 10% of the exports (FAO, 2002, p.3). However, according to the 1991. census, out of the total population (4.5 million inhabitants), the rural population represented 43 percent and, as said by Mr. Bo~i, Deputy Minister of MAF, still represents today more than 30 percent. Within this rural population, 15 percent of the households derive their livelihoods solely from agriculture, 67 percent from a mixture of farm and non farm income and the remaining 18 percent rely on non-farm activities (1991. census). This situation is mainly due to the fact that most of farms are too small and their productivity too low to provide an adequate living. In term of evolution, the purely agricultural population has been divided by five between 1961 and 1991 (}utini, , 1996). This means that migrations from rural areas have started a long time ago and are not only due to the last Balkan conflict. Indeed, these migration movements are affecting not only the rural space. They also create other problems in cities such as unemployment. The resulting situation claims for a better balanced development among rural and urban spaces, including the rural development strategy in which the education component has a crucial importance. Directly related with the peculiarities of the rural environment, the physical structure of Croatia leads to some hope in the development of tourism activities in rural areas together with sustainable types of agriculture. Croatia includes important mountainous areas, a large Adriatique cost with hundreds of small islands, and out of the total territory about 40 percent is covered by forests, 28 percent by arable land and 27 percent by meadows and pastures (FAO, 2002, p.2). This potential appeals for an appropriate education and training of the rural people. 2.2 Educational aspects Despite the fact that education is a basic right in itself and an essential prerequisite for reducing poverty and improving the living conditions of rural people, children's access to education in rural areas is still lower than in urban areas and the quality of education is poorer. As we will see further, Croatian rural people (more than 30 percent of the population) are also in a disadvantage position for access and quality of education in comparison to urban citizens. That is why it might be relevant to propose an ERP initiative in Croatia through the design of a strategy of education for rural people. In general terms, Education is essential prerequisite for reducing poverty and for improving the living conditions of rural people. In other words, education is an essential factor for rural development. Following arguments confirm the previous statements. Research shows that basic education affects small landholders and subsistence farmers productivity immediately and positively, and that a farmer with four years of elementary education is, on average, 8.7 per cent more productive than a farmer with no education Moreover, farmers with more education get much higher gains in income from the use of new technologies and adjust more rapidly to technological changes. [In brief,] the provision of more and better basic educational services in rural areas such as primary education, literacy and basic skills training can substantially improve productivity and livelihoods (Gasperini, 2000b, p.1). So far, the MOES retains overall responsibility for the educational system (designed in Annex 1), being the main policymaking body with budget responsibility and control; the tertiary level [which will not be considered in this report] is under the auspices of the Ministry of Sciences and Technologies. [More concretely, MOES] draft legislation, defines curricula, textbooks, school budgets, criteria for the school managers, settling all payments, etc (OECD, 2001, pp.7-8). As in many countries in the region, the former communism regime in Croatia was successful in ensuring high levels of access to education, especially at secondary level, but with a curricula that is now both outdated and overloaded (OECD, 2001). To improve this situation and to go towards European Union standards, the Government of Croatia has begun from 1995. to adapt its policy educational framework. In 2001., the Primary and Secondary Education Acts have been modified to put decentralization into practice at both educational levels and a proposition of reform has been drafted for the whole system including higher and adult continuing education. Summarized in the document Concept of changes in the education system of the Republic of Croatia, the reform pretends to enable participation in the design of personal and social life and be a ticket to the labor market and the basis for economic development (MOEYS, 2002, p.5). The genuine will by the current Government to reform the education system (OECD, 2001., p.6) is concretely stated in the document Concept of changes in the education system. This document underlines following needs: establish a close link between the educational institutions and their respective environments especially the market;increase public funding of education in line with the practices in the European countries; introduce incentives ; display equality in educational opportunities; encourage open balanced curricula and diversity of learning models (MOEYS, 2002, pp.7-8). The document also brings up the introduction of outside classrooms and optional and electives programs for the primary and secondary levels (MOEYS, 2002, pp.12-13). At both levels, the report mentions disencumberment of present programs from untopical and unnecessary content and the use of traditional sources of knowledge (MOEYS, 2002, p.21). To lead to a comparative education system with the European standards, the same document proposes an important evolution of the structure of the existing basic compulsory 8-years schooling. This basic education level is commonly called Primary. However, comparatively with most of European education systems the Croatian primary level includes in reality lower secondary. That is why, future reformed compulsory school sub-system will last 10 years and be divided into 6 years of elementary school (primary level) and 4 years of junior high school (lower secondary level) (MOEYS, 2002, p.11). All the above elements go into promising directions and should be considered as the political educational framework to which could be articulated the measures this report will propose for rural areas. However, as far as we know, the document of reform to what we refer has not yet led to an official reform/plan of education. In fact, as seen at ground level during visits to schools, little of these elements are yet applied. Related to this situation, as the OECD report says, there is a considerable slippage between the Governments development strategy in the educational sector and the available resources within the same time-frame (OECD, 2001, p.7). Path and time limits seem not to be clearly marked to adapt the educational offer to real life and job markets opportunities and to address the drop-out issue at secondary level. Regarding the decentralization process, respective prerogatives of the different stakeholders of the educational system still appear unclear for parts concerned with the decentralization, especially regarding budget issues. Besides this, the document Concept of changes in the education system does not refer to the rural space and its economical/environmental potentialities and to specific educational needs of rural people. A strategy to improve education for rural people in Croatia might contribute to address such situation. Generally, there is a common practice in the administrations of the ministries in charge of education to evaluate the status and performance of the education system through global indicators that reflect only the status of education for a whole country and eventually by territorial entities (region, department). However, indicators do not say much about the status of education in rural and urban areas because there is no intermediary process of the data collected in the territorial entities. Thus, it becomes difficult to address specific problem related to education in rural areas. As many other countries, Croatia illustrates a general lack of information on education in rural areas. This situation in itself is an additional justification of this report. At last, institutionally, two main ministries are concerned with education in rural areas: the Ministry of Education and Sports (MOES) and the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF). It is important to mention that measures recommended in this document will be more easily applied if there is a strong coordination between MAF and MOES. Therefore, it is the aim of this study to contribute to promote MOES and MAF coordination in view of promoting better accesses and quality of education for rural people. 3. Methodology To enable the formulation of the current situation, an analysis of the education system status in rural areas of Croatia has been produced (Ilak Perauri, A.S. 2003a). The author of the analysis has been a national expert in education for rural people. The national expert has carried out an investigation consisting of a document collection and study. Besides this, several meetings with stakeholders concerned and visits to schools were carried out, partly with the FAO education officer. From this investigation we prepared an analytical paper entitled The education system of Croatia: With overviews related to rural areas and education for rural development. Therefore, this document was the main source of information and recommendation contained in this paper. Besides the above source, information and recommendations contained in this paper are also the result of a participatory approach adopted by the project. Three regional workshops have been held in each of the three agro-ecological regions of Croatia: Mountain, Mediterranean and Pannonian Regions. In each event representatives of stakeholders concerned by rural development at regional level had the opportunity to meet and be involved in the definition of the Strategy. Participants included representatives of local authorities, administrations, NGOs, schools, enterprises and farmers associations. Participants discussed and provided inputs to experts in each of the component of the rural development strategy including education. Conceptually, the formulation of a strategy of education for rural people (as a component of the rural development strategy) refers to three main concepts: basic education, basic learning needs and education for rural people. Extracted from IIEP-UNESCO, 2002 and Gasperini, 2000b. Therefore, considering these references, the findings and recommendations proposed to improve education in rural areas will include the following levels of education: pre-primary, primary, lower secondary and non-formal education. To collect the necessary information and to prepare the analysis of the education system and the formulation of the recommendations, the experts have used a methodological tool Structure to formulate a strategy of education for rural people. To structure the analysis, each level of education reviewed has been revised through three global criteria: access to education for rural people, quality of education for rural people and institutional capacity of the education system to address the basic learning needs of rural people. At last, to facilitate the overview of the problems and recommendations and understand their articulation, for each of the educational level analyzed the problems and recommendations are displayed into tree-shaped diagrams for each type of education. Such analytical presentation is inspired by the methodology Zielorienterte Projekplanung translated from German into Objectives-oriented project planning (Krimmel T, Prum N.,1995). This methodology includes two majors articulated steps: the problem analysis and the objective analysis, which is called recommendations and expected effects in concerned diagrams. Recommendations and expected effects derive from the problem analysis. In each diagram, problems or recommendations are presented in a hierarchical order and sorted to differentiate causes and effects from the bottom to the top of each tree. For example in the following tree; Pre-school education in rural areas of Croatia: an overview of the problems, the problem Share of resources allocated to pres-primary is insufficient brings about the problem: Territorial distribution of crche programs is insufficiently appropriated, Which causes: Long waiting list for inscription of children, Which brings about: Pre-primary enrolment ratio remains weak in general (40%) and specially in rural areas where access to preschool services is lower than in urban areas, Which contributes to the whole negative effect Current status of pre-school education in rural areas contributes to lower level of education and indirectly handicap employment of rural people and rural development. Besides this, rephrasing of each problem in the tree of the problems enables further design of the tree of recommendations. For example in diagram of problems for pre-school education, the problem, Pre-primary enrolment ratio remains weak in general (40%) and specially in rural areas where access to preschool services is lower than in urban areas has been rephrased into Enrolment ratio in pre-primary has raised from 40% to 80 % (Western European ratio) in 10 years time including in rural areas. At last, all following diagrams distinguish problems and recommendations according to what they refer: access and quality of education and institutional capacity. This distinction has been made using the following legend: Problem or measure referring to access to education for rural peopleProblem or measure referring to quality of education for rural peopleProblem or measure referring to institutional capacity of the education system to address the basic learning needs of rural people 4. Pre-school in rural areas: Problem analysis and recommendations 4.1 Facts for pre-school education In Croatia, pre-school includes: Early childhood care which comprises care of children in crches and by registered women who take care of children at their home. Early childhood care goes from six months to 3 years old. Education provided in kindergarten institutions from 3 years old to the age of beginning of compulsory school (at the latest at 7 years old). Kindergarten education is not compulsory. Croatia has 454 preschool institutions, in which 103 076 children were inscribed in 2001 of which 14 780 were in crches and 71 268 were in kindergarten. Participation is weak and lower than the average rate for Europe. The gross enrolment ratio for pre-primary in 1996 was 40% for Croatia while it was 79.7% for Europe (UNESCO, 2000). Insufficient preschool offer affects more rural areas. Investigations reveal that for a large proportion of rural children a 3-month pre-primary training is the only formal pre-school available (Ilak Perauri, A.S., 2003 a). As mentioned in OCDE, 2001, the pre-primary level of education shows a variety of different programs such as: regular or fundamental programs from 6 months to 6 years old ; short-term programs such as the 3 months-pre-primary training above-mentioned ; alternative preschool programs proposed by private schools or organizations (example: Montessori Nursery school) ; programs for handicapped children ; programs for children with post-war syndromes ; programs for ethnic communities and national communities ; For most of children who benefit from pre-school programs, quality of preschool is questionable due to lack of standards and textbooks and shortage of material. In addition, low quality and weak enrolment are also due to insufficient support from the Ministry or local authorities and from a lack of public awareness on the importance of preschool education (OCDE, 2001, p.22). Finally cost of pre-school education, distance to pre-school and lack of transportation prevent many children from access to pre-primary programs. These last difficulties affect particularly rural areas where level of income is generally lower than in urban areas. The first diagram which follows classifies existing problems and constraints of pre-primary schools among three categories (access to education, quality and institutional capacity) according to the legend previously presented. The diagram displays also the articulation and hierarchy of these problems and their effects. The second diagram rephrases the first by changing problems into possible articulated measures/recommendations to undertake in order to solve these problems.  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT   SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  4.4 Summary of recommendations for pre-school education in rural areas Resulting from the first diagram, above tree of recommendations can be used to identify what are the keys measures that should be taken in priority as they appear as essential to reduce bottlenecks. In the present case, key-measures appear to be the increase of public expenditure for pre-school education and the design and implement program for an appropriate distribution of crches in the territory, especially in rural areas. In other words, these two related measures referring to institutional capacity are expected to solve gradually the major problem for pre-school education, which is access. Such measures can contribute to reach Education for All (EFA) in Croatia. However, to increase the level of education of rural people and indirectly the level of development in rural areas, several other measures for preschool education are necessary and should be implemented in parallel as shown in the diagram. In other words, more the above measures/recommendations will be considered as a whole package of articulated elements to implement, better are the chances to verify later the expected effects on access and quality The entity/person in charge of the implementation of the above recommendations varies from one recommendation to another. It appears that for the recommendations related to institutional capacity (displayed in grey), governmental entities will decide and be involved (Ministry of Finances, service in charge of pre-school in the Ministry of Education. Also, at county level, due to the decentralization process, local authorities will be concerned. 5. Primary/compulsory education in rural areas: Problem analysis and recommendations 5.1 Facts for Primary/compulsory education As Ilak Perauri A.S. reports (p.22), primary education is compulsory to all children, residents of Croatia starting at last at seven years of age in the school closest to the place of living. Primary education in Croatia is free. It lasts eight year (till age 14/15) and by ending pupils receive a graduation diploma. As presented in, in the Croatian education system, primary school comprises two parts. During the first four years we have a one-teacher education and for the last four years we have a subject teaching as for the secondary level. Comparing to the most common standard in Europe, the last three years of primary in Croatia would be considered as lower secondary in Western Europe. That is why, as previously mentioned, a reform leading to this standard in under preparation in Croatia (MOE, 2002, p.11). As presented in further Table, the gross enrolment ratio in primary is the same for Europe and Croatia. However, duration of compulsory education is still lower in Croatia and, as a result, school life expectancy is also lower. As previously said, no data are available specifically for access to primary school in rural areas. However, investigations (Ilak Perauri, A.S. 2003.a; p.27) reveal three major constraints: From1990 to 2000, the number of basic schools has decreased of 25 percent. The main cause were migrations from rural areas. Distances to school were longer in distance and time for rural children. Access to additional pedagogical and non-pedagogical activities after or before normal school-hours (sports, library, out-door activities, art etc) were more difficult for rural children. Indicators for quality and efficiency in primary (UNESCO, 2000) Croatia (1997)Europe (1997) Population age 6-14 ratio  27 % N/A School life expectancy  11,4 years 14,6 years Duration of compulsory education  8 years 10,7 yearsApparent intake rate, primary education  99 % N/A Gross enrolment ratio in primary: Total 100 % 100 %Gross enrolment ratio in primary for Male 100 % N/AGross enrolment ratio in primary for Female 100 % N/A Croatia (1996)% of repeaters1 %Percentage of a cohort reaching Grade 5100 % Croatia (1996)Europe (1997)Pupils/teacher ratio primary17N/APercentage of female teachers in primary 76 77.9 Number of teachers (all levels) per thousands in total population1324 As presented in above Tables, Croatia obtains positive results for percentage of a cohort reaching Grade 5 and ratio of pupils to teachers. But investigations confirm that the latter ratio can differs a lot in rural areas. For example small schools (local schools around Trilj) had two or three children per grade. This situation results into a gradual increase of the number of multi-grade classrooms in rural areas. It is not a problem per se. However, as multi-grade is very common in rural schools, the situation can lead to a lower quality owing to insufficient specific preparation of teachers in multi-grade teaching. In addition, schools in bigger villages or smaller cities had often too many pupils per class (more than twenty) and too many classes. Concerned schools are numerous and must works in two shifts (morning and afternoon). Other information collected trough visits to schools demonstrate that for rural areas, quality is affected by the main following factors: Curricula and textbooks and school hours are not considering enough local culture, rural life and economy. Teachers are generally not prepared to include knowledge about rural and local aspects. The most usual teaching method applied by teachers is frontal teaching and most commonly pupils are in situation of passive listeners. The realization of outdoor activities and school garden establishment depends a lot upon the teachers time, interest and capabilities. Primary teacher salary is low and teachers do not get any salary or non-salary incentive by working in rural or remote areas Besides above mentioned constraints, quality and access to primary education in rural areas are also affected by factors related to the institutional capacity as presented in the Table further. Croatia (1996)Europe (1997) Private enrolment as percentage of total enrolment (primary and secondary)0 %N/APublic expenditure on education as percentage of GNP % 3.18 %5.3%Average annual growth rate of public expenditure on education 91-96 - 4.3 % N/A Source: UNESCO, World education report, 2000 pp.131-163. Public expenditure on education as percentage of GNP % is lower for Croatia than it is for Europe. Even if the ratio tends to increase (3.81% in 2001, Statistical yearbook 2000, p. 176.), Croatia still allocates insufficient resources to education in comparison to its western neighbors. Finally, investigation shows that quality and access to primary education in rural areas is affected by the effects of the recent decentralization process (Ilak Perauri, A.S., 2003). As decentralization leads to partial financial dependence from counties, rich counties generally allocate more funding to their schools. However, most of rural schools does not relates to counties considered as rich. Consequently, there is an unequal financial position among schools, which leads to unequal equipment and facilities often at the disadvantage of rural schools.   3. An overview of the problems and measures to implement for primary/compulsory education in rural areas 3.1 Primary education in rural areas of Croatia: an overview of the problems            3. An overview of the problems and measures to implement for primary/compulsory education in rural areas  3.1 Primary education in rural areas of Croatia: an overview of the problems      5.4 Detail of the recommendation noted a): Adapt curricula integrating local/rural context and knowledge The adaptations of the curricula described further are in line with the following changes proposed in the document Concept of changes (MOEYS, 2002): use of traditional sources of knowledge (p. 21); encourage balanced curricula (p.8); diversify learning models (p.8); the introduction of out-door classrooms and optional and electives programs: two classes per week from Grades 1-6, six classes per week from Grades 7-8 and electives modules and some vocational courses in Grade 9 (pp.12-13) The integration of local and rural context and knowledge may include the following elements: Local/regional and rural traditions, culture and values Local/regional history, geography and architecture Local/regional natural resources Local/regional economical activities related to the rural space (traditional and potential). It is suggested to integrate that above subjects into general education subjects (sciences, history, geography, literature...) and into electives modules mentioned above. It is also proposed to complement national texts books with adequate teaching aids/hand outs prepared by regional teachers` groups acting under the supervision of the organization in charge of the control of the school text books in Croatia. Owing to the fact that the reform proposed is stressing the necessity of a disencumberment of present programs from unnecessary content (MOES, 2002, p. 21), the integration of such knowledge about rural aspects could be understood as an adaptation of existing curricula and not as an additive list of subjects. 5.5 Summary of recommendations proposed for primary/compulsory education in rural areas Differently from what applies to the case of pre-school education, it appears that, for compulsory education problems and measures to undertake refer more to quality aspects than to access to education. However, this can be questionable due to unavailability of results for access indicators for rural areas in (Ilak Perauri A.S, 2003a - Gross enrolment ratio in primary 100 % in 1997, p.25). Besides this, it is important to stress that all the original causes of the problems of compulsory education in rural areas, and consequently the measures to undertake are first referring to institutional capacity (displayed in grey): Give budget priority to rural schools (school facilities, personnel and transportation) within the increase of the public expenditure allocated to Education Create a financial compensation system that put basic schools on a comparable budgetary position whatever they rely on poor county budget or rich county Within the decentralization framework, define more clearly respective prerogatives of all parties concerned. Improve information/ training to these parties about their role and control the implementation of these prerogatives Not surprisingly, the first above listed measure (Give budget priority to rural schools) has more impact within the whole set of measures proposed, specifically on quality measures such as 1) Adaptation of salary and non salary incentives policy and regulations for more motivation in working in remote area and performance of the teachers, 2) Adaptation of curricula and pupils evaluation system integrating local/rural context and knowledge, 3) measures related to training and evaluation of teachers. However, financial aspects per se are insufficient to solve existing problems. All measures depend also, for not saying only, on the willingness and policy choices of parties concerned e.g. : Define more clearly respective prerogatives of all parties concerned within the decentralization process ; Adapt the evaluation system of teacher considering more pro-active teaching methods and introduction of rural knowledge. At the end the whole set of these articulated measures is expected to i) reduce the gap between rural and urban children regarding quality of education and adaptation of the learning content in primary schools, ii) upgrade the value of rural life and activities, iii) improve the access to school transport and specific activities after or before normal school-hours and finally, iv) increase the level of education of rural people and indirectly the level of employment, settlement and development in rural areas and the fulfilment of citizenship. According to the nature of each measure, entities/persons in charge of their implementation will vary. Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Education and county authorities will be major entities for implementation of institutional capacity measures (displayed in grey). Within MOE, at least the Department for Elementary Education, the Institute for Education Development and ad-hoc existing commission for curricula would play a key-role for the implementation of measures referring to quality of education. At a level more operational (school and county) teachers and principals would play a key role, specifically in the changes needed in curricula, text books and evaluation. 6. Non-formal and informal education in rural areas: Problem analysis and recommendations 6.1 Definitions Non-formal education is defined as any organized and systematic educational activity aimed at providing certain types of education to specific population groups, adults as well as children (FAO and IIEP-UNESCO, 2002). Therefore, in this report, non-formal education includes adult education and various special programs such as education programs for out-of school children, handicapped children and illiterates. By contrast, informal learning is not structured or organised by any institution, but occurs through everyday interactions with the environment that offer new information and insights, e.g. through conversation, reading, radio and television broadcasts (FAO and IIEP-UNESCO, 2002). Consequently, in this document informal education includes knowledge and abilities learned from various medias and from new technologies. 6.2 Facts about non-formal and informal education Indicators for non-formal and informal education Croatia (1997)Europe (1997)Estimated number of illiterate population 128 000 of which 83% are female N/AEstimated total illiteracy rate 2.1 %1.4 % Estimated Female illiteracy rate 3.3 %1.9 % Daily newspapers 115242Personal computers per thousands inhabitants 22 204Internet hosts per 100000 inhabitants  1841336 Source: UNESCO, World education report, 2000 pp.131-163. Quantitative data for non-formal and informal education are scarce. Above Table presents the results for some indicators concerning these types of education comparing the situation in Croatia and in Europe (UNESCO, 2000, pp. 131-163). The results show a less favorable situation in Croatia for illiteracy and the number of daily newspapers, computers and Internet hosts per inhabitant. Adult education Information collected leads to following facts for adult education: In Croatia, adult and non-formal education is essentially offered by 20 Open Public Universities (OPU), of which OPU Zagreb is, by far, the largest (20 000 beneficiaries). The weak quantitative impact of non-formal adult education affects especially rural areas. Most of continuing education programs are ill-adapted to labor markets needs due to the fact that they are offer-driven. Croatia illiteracy rate is higher (2.1%) than the average for Europe (1.4%) (UNESCO, 2000). Illiterate rates are still higher for women (3.3%) than for the whole population. This is particularly the case in rural areas where the education level of women is lower than for men. In spite of the fact that Croatia obtains positive result for percentage of a cohort reaching Grade 5 (see Chapter Primary education), the country has still a large share of its population who did not finish primary school (18.6% in 2001). 2 500 adults are trained in primary and secondary schools (Ilak Perauri, A.S., 2003a, p. 53). Special programs For out-of-school children, primary and secondary schools are supposed to organize condensed teaching applying an individual approach. However, as the provision of such program depends on the availability and will of teachers and managers, condensed teaching is not systematically offered for this category of children. As mentioned in OECD (2001, p. 9), the drop-out issue affect mostly secondary school. At this education level, many programs and methods are no longer in line with the new economic and social requirement, nor with expectations of the young. Some primary and secondary schools provide special programs for handicapped children. Children have day program or stay year around in schools with boarding facilities. Programs are adequate to the physical or psychological handicap of the child. On remote islands children have a possibility of distant learning. In their place of residence they connect through Internet to the closest school and attend class according to teachers instruction. The technical support is usually provided by school experts and by parents. The main obstacles are disturbance in phone/internet lines. This program is used if on island if there are less than three children. From some islands (Unije) children are brought to school by helicopter (to Losinj). Some schools in areas with ethnic minorities have special programs in their respective languages: Czech, Hungarian and Italian. Informal education Besides indicators above-mentionned, (Ilak Perauri, A.S., 2003a, p. 43) reports the following concerning informal education: Communications infrastructures are not well distributed among regions, which affect the level of information and education of people in rural areas: New technologies are generally more introduced in urban areas because of better infrastructure (phone lines). As the financial input for new communication means is higher than for traditional communication lines, some counties with economically better positions are implementing faster the computer nets (Istra County beside the city of Zagreb is leading by the number of computers and internet hosts).                                            6.5 Summary of recommendations proposed for non-formal and informal education education in rural areas The problem analysis showed that the major problem for non-formal and informal education is access. Data on the subject are scarce and information collected show that the number of beneficiaries of non formal education is still very limited and essentially concentrated in Zagreb. Therefore, first measures to be undertaken for this type of education would lead to increase the offer of continuing education for adult and of other specific non formal education such as programs for out-of school and handicap children. This can be achieved through institutional capacity measures such as: definition and implementation of a special regulation and funding mechanism to encourage private providers and decentralized training for youth and adults in rural areas ; adaptation of the status and management of the main provider (Open Public Universities), especially for the OPUs in the regions in order to reach rural beneficiaries ; adaptation of the continuing education programs offered through the adoption of a demand-driven approach by all training providers for the definition of the programs ; and training of teachers for improvement of access and quality of out-of-school children programs. Besides such recommendations, a training need assessment could be carried out to anticipate labour market needs and rural development opportunities. Results of such assessment would feed the adaptation of the offer of adult training providers and of initial technical/vocational education. Informal education has also an important impact on the level of information and knowledge of rural people. Therefore, an adjustment of the existing plan/program for communications infrastructures and new technologies is proposed to ensure that these infrastructures and new technologies are well distributed among regions and reach all rural areas. The main designer of such measures would be MOE. But the design and further implementation of measures should be engaged from the beginning with concerned stakeholders such as other ministries concerned, training providers, municipalities, entrepreneurs, state regulation makers, etc. 7. Conclusion As education for rural people puts priority on basic education, we have focused this report on basic education, in other words on pre-primary, primary, lower secondary and non-formal education. (In Croatia primary includes lower secondary). In term of access, pre-primary education in Croatia is still very below European standards and this even more in rural areas. Quality is also questionable due to level of staff and insufficient facilities, specially in rural areas. For the compulsory school level, the major problems refers to quality of education (quasi absence of rural life aspects in curricula and textbooks, teacher centered teaching methods, realization of outdoor activities rely on teachers capacities and interest, continuing training hardly made available for rural teachers). However, there are still some access problems regarding school transport and access to specific activities after or before normal school-hours. For pre-primary as well as for compulsory schooling, the nature of the original causes of the problems is the weak institutional capacity. This includes, insufficient budget, specifically for education facilities and staffing and, due to unclear roles of parties and inappropriate budgetary regulations, problematic implementation of the decentralization leading often to poorer schools in rural areas. For non-formal education, the main constraints are very limited offers of adult education, especially in rural areas, in comparison to the needs. Measures to undertake are related to the institutional capacity. The main ones are: 1) definition and implementation of a special regulation and funding mechanism to encourage private providers and decentralized training for youth and adults in rural areas ; 2) adaptation of the status and management of the Open Public Universities of the regions ; 3) adoption by training providers of a demand-driven approach in the design of continuing education programs ; and, related to the latter measure, 4) realization of training need assessment to anticipate labour market needs and rural development opportunities. The diagrams of problems previously presented have permitted to propose articulated measures to increase the level of education of rural people, what will contributes to increase the level of employment, settlement and development in rural areas and the fulfilment of citizenship. As for the problems, priority measures are referring to reinforcement of institutional capacity. For primary education, these measures concern a more adapted decentralization process in favor of rural schools and a more appropriate budget, both series of measures enabling needed changes in curricula, salary and non salary incentives, training of teachers, active teaching/learning methods and evaluation of pupils and teachers of rural schools. Besides this, emphasis must be made on the fact that positive effects presented in the diagrams can only be expected if the synchronization of the implementation of the measures becomes concrete and if they are seen as a whole package, in other words as articulated elements of the strategy of education for rural people. This paper has proved that, in Croatia specific problems of education exist in rural areas and are important. It suggests that these problems could be addressed as proposed, as part of the strategy for rural development, to ensure that the education system contributes to rural development. Bibliography FAO & IIEP-UNESCO (2002): Education for rural development and food security. Addressing global changes, First draft, Rome, Italy FAO (2002): A rural development strategy for Croatia. Technical Cooperation Project Document. FAO, Rome, Utaly Gasperini L. (2000)a: Education for Rural People: Addressing a neglected majority. FAO, Rome, Italy Gasperini L. (2000)b: From agricultural education to education for rural development and food security: All for education and food for all, FAO-SDRE, Rome (available at HYPERLINK "http://www.fao.org/sd/exdirect/exre0028.htm"http://www.fao.org/sd/exdirect/exre0028.htm) Ilak Perauri, A.S. (2003)a: The education system of Croatia. With overviews related to rural areas and education for rural development, Final version, Zagreb, Croatia Ilak Perauri, A.S., Perauri ordano (2003): Vocational Education related to Rural Development, Zbornik radova 22. Posvetovanje organizatorjev dela, pp. 220-227., Portoro~, Slovenija Ilak Perauri, A.S. (2003): Acess of Compulsory Education in Rural Areas of Croatia, Zbornik radova 22. Posvetovanje organizatorjev dela, pp. 243-253., Portoro~, Slovenija Krimmel T., Prum N. (1995): Documentation of the ZOPP-Workshop for a Project of Rehabilitation and Development of the Cambodian Forestry Sector, MAFF/GTZ, Phnom Penh, Cambodia MOEYS (2002): Concept of changes in the education system of the Republic of Croatia, Summary, Zagreb, Croatia OECD/Center for Cooperation with non-members (2001): Thematic review of the national policies for education Croatia, Stability pact for Southern Europe, pp. 7-8 UNESCO (2000): World Education Report, The right to Education, Towards education throughout life. UNESCO, Paris, France }utini ., Brki, S. (1996): The Students of Agronomy and Family Farming, Poljoprivredna znanstvena smotra, vol. 61, nr. 1-2 pp. 7-21, Agronomski fakultet, Zagreb, Croatia  Europe: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal San Marino, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.  Population age 6-14 expressed as percentage of the population 15-64.  The school life expectancy, or expected number of years of formal education, is the number of years a child is expected to remain at school, or university, including years spent on repetition. It is the sum of the age-specific enrolment ratios for primary, secondary and tertiary education.  Apparent intake rate, primary education: Number of new entrants into first grade of primary education, regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the population of official admission age to primary education.  Gross enrolment ratio The gross enrolment ratio is the total enrolment in primary education, regardless of age, divided by the population of the age group, which officially corresponds to primary schooling.  Pupil-teacher ratio. This ratio represents the average number of pupils per teacher at the level of education specified. For secondary education the ratio refers to general education only.  Percentage of female teachers in primary. The number of female teachers, at the level specified, expressed as a percentage of the total number of teachers at the same level. For secondary education, the data refer to general education only.  Private enrolment as percentage of total enrolment. Enrolment in private schools, at the level specified, expressed as a percentage of the total enrolment at the same level. Government-aided schools are considered as private if they are privately managed. For secondary education, data refer to general education only  Estimated number of adult illiterates (15 years and over), in thousands, and the percentage of female illiterates.  Estimated adult illiteracy rate. Estimated number of adult illiterates (15 years and over ) expressed as a percentage of the population in the corresponding age groups  Daily newspapers. Estimated circulation of daily newspapers, expressed in number of copies per 1,000 inhabitants.  Personal computers: Estimated number of self contained computers designed to be used by a single individual, per 1,000 inhabitants.  Internet hosts per 100000 inhabitants. Number of computers with active Internet Protocol (IP) addresses connected to the Internet, per 100,000 inhabitants. Current status of pre-school education in rural areas contributes to a lower level of education of rural people and indirectly handicap employment of rural people, rural development and fulfilment of citizenship Lack of standards and textbooks and shortage of material Distance to preschool prevents many children from access to preschool, especially in rural areas Territorial distribution of crche programs is insufficiently appropriated Long waiting list for inscription of children For a large proportion of rural children the intensive 3 months-pre-primary training is the only formal pre-school available Pre-primary enrolment ratio remains weak in general (40%) and specially in rural areas where access to preschool services is lower than in urban areas Higher age and lower education of crches employees in rural areas The share of resources allocated to pres-primary is insufficient, this within a whole Public Expenditure to Education lower in Croatia that it is in Europe (Ilak, 2003, p.38) 4.2 Pre-school education in rural areas: Problem analysis Lower quality of pre-school education in rural areas Parents, especially women are often prevented to look for a job Cost of preschool remains high even if it is partly subsidized Lack of educational means (separated space for babies) and qualified educators and specialists Lack of registered women taking care of children at their home Dependence on local authorities causing financial problems and insufficient availability of preschool institutions Demographical changes (migrations, decreasing birth rate) are insufficiently anticipated and addressed Clarify preschool standard programs and control their application Include in the national program for crches below adequate educational means: i) specific textbooks and material; ii) separated space for babies; iii) qualified educators and specialists; and iv) flexible time options for care of children To enable implementation of above measures concerning preschools in rural areas and in the whole country, increase adequately public expenditure for pre-school education 4.3 Pre-school education in rural areas: recommendations and expected outcomes 1. Clarify respective prerogatives of central and local authorities regarding pre-schooling 2. Compensate, on a pre-defined basis, lack of resources in poor municipalities allocating them special budget for pre-school education Implementation of below-measures contributes to increase the level of education of rural people and indirectly the level of employment and development in rural areas While the national program for crches below is implementing, maintain the alternative 3 months-pre-primary program and gradually replace it by the standard 3-years program Quality of pre-school education in rural areas is as good as in urban areas according to entry test results in Grade 1 Parents, especially women, are no longer prevented to look for a job because of the necessity of taking care of their children Define, implement and control regulations for standard prices in crches Enrolment ratio in pre-primary has raised from 40% to 80 % (Western European ratio) in 10 years time including in rural areas According to demographical changes, advertise & implement appropriate registration for women taking care of children including in rural areas According to demographical changes design and implement a national program for an appropriate distribution of crches and kindergarten in the territory, especially in rural areas, including public crches & crches run by parents associations Anticipated and address demographical changes (migrations, decreasing birth rate) within policies and plans for education for rural people 5.2 Primary/compulsory education in rural areas: Problem analysis Below-factors contribute to a lower level of education of rural people and indirectly handicap employment of rural people, rural development and fulfilment of citizenship Quality of education is sometimes lower in rural schools than in urban schools * More problematical access to school for rural children because of distance and costs * Low access for rural children to additional pedagogical and non-pedagogical activities after or before normal school-hours (sports, library, out-door activities, art etc) because insufficient availability of space, facilities, personnel and transportation As a result, rural pupils, versus urban life and values, have low consideration for rural values, cultures and life and later few of them are motivated for settlements and business in rural areas, which contribute to migrations to urban areas To a certain extend decentralization has led to unequal financial position among schools. This affects specifically rural schools Teachers do not get any salary or non-salary incentive by working in rural or remote areas Incentives for encouraging performan-ces of teachers are quasi non existent Teachers are pedagogically insufficiently trained and supported to update their teaching methods Curricula and textbooks and school hours are not considering enough local culture, rural life &economy Rich counties generally allocate more funding to schools. This leads to better equipped schools in rich counties, which are rarely in rural areas Decreased number of psycholo-gists, pedagogues & medical staff The content of learning in rural primary schools in insufficiently adapted to the context Gradual increase of the number of multi-grade classrooms in rural areas where teachers are insufficiently prepared for such teaching Children and teachers from rural remote areas have difficulties of access and additional costs for transportation Most usual teaching method or main classroom approach applied by teachers is frontal teaching and most commonly, pupils are in situation of passive listeners Time spent for subjects related to rural life and economy during school hours is generally very low and depends a lot upon the teachers time, interest and capabilities The realization of outdoor activities and school garden establishment depends a lot upon the teachers time, interest and capabilities In Croatia, there is neither Education For All Plan (EFA) nor specific national plan for improving education for rural people Teachers and staff in primary education get lower salary than current average salary of a Croatian for unskilled employee (Ilak, 2003, p.34) Teachers are generally not prepared to include knowledge about rural and local aspects. Continuing training of teacher does not provide fields training in rural life & economy Teachers in small village schools can hardly attend training of teacher courses because substitute teachers are rarely available Demographical changes (migrations from rural areas, ageing of population, decrea-sing birth rate) are insufficien-tly anticipated and addressed Respective prerogatives regarding budget issues still appear unclear for parts concerned by the decentralization Decentralization leads to partial financial dependence of primary schools from county administration Resources allocated to education are insufficient (Public Expenditure to Education is lower in % of GDP than in Europe, (Ilak, 2003a, p.38) No criteria within the pupil and teacher evaluation systems for considering rural life and economy From1990 to 2000, 25 percent of decrease for number of basic schools caused primarily by migra-tion from rural areas (Ilak, p.13) 5.3 Primary/compulsory education in rural areas: recommendations and expected outcomes Implementation of below-measures contributes to increase the level of education of rural people and indirectly the level of employment, settlement and development in rural areas Increase of education budget in personnel, facilities and transportation tend to reduce gradually the gap between rural and urban children for: * Access to schools: adequate means of transportation are provided, are cheap for the families and allow access in a reasonable time * Access to additional pedagogical and non-pedagogical activities after or before normal school-hours (library, computer room, lunch room, sports, out-door activities, art etc) Rural values, cultures, activities and life are not anymore regarded by children as of lower value than those of urban life. As a result, settlement in rural areas does not appear as a choice by default The gap tend to be gradually disappearing between rural and urban children regarding quality of education and adaptation of the learning content in primary schools Decentralization leads to comparable financial and equipment position among rural and urban schools and more effective responsibility at county and local level. Gradually it is observed that pro-active learning methods become more and more common Time spent for subjects related to rural/local issues during school hours is ruled according to below adaptation of curricula. Pupils evaluation system considers these subjects Teachers initiatives for outdoor pedagogical activities and interaction with local communi-ty are more and more frequent (e.g. pedagogi-cal garden, debates on societal problems, invitation of knowledgeable local persons) Adapt teacher training for teacher posted in rural areas. E.g. create a course in rural life & economy for teachers, encourage attendance of training courses on multi-grade learning, interaction with community. Facilitate training course attendance for teachers from small village schools enlarging the team of teachers who substitute absence of regular teachers Create a financial compensation system that put basic schools on a comparable budgetary position whatever they rely on poor county budget or rich county Provide appropriate school facilities to rural schools adapting existing infrastructure, equipment and transportation programs and budgets Adapt salary and non salary incentive policy and regulations introducing: i) a performance-based incentive system such as more rapid up scaling of salary. Articulate this system with the evaluation of teachers ii) specific incentive for working in remote areas Adapt curricula integrating local/rural context and knowledge (see details of the adaptation following the diagram Note a) Adapt the evaluation system of teacher considering more pro-active learning methods and introduction of rural knowledge Increase number of psychologists, pedagogues and medical staff Within the decentralization framework, define more clearly respective prerogatives of all parties concerned. Improve information/ training to these parties about their role and control the implementation of these prerogatives Anticipated and address demographical changes within policies and plans for education for rural people To enable implementation of above measures for rural areas and in line with the reform proposed in MOES, 2002), increase within 5 years time the public expenditure allocated to Education up to the average rate of the European countries (5 %). Increase the share allocated to primary at least in the same proportion as for other education levels. Within this share, give priority to rural schools considering above measures for investments and recurrent costs in school facilities, personnel and transportation Implement and control the compensation system enabling a comparable budgetary position whatever the school rely on poor or rich counties Ensure that closure of schools in rural areas is compensated by acceptable territorial redistribution and adequate transportation facilities 6.3 Non-formal and informal education in rural areas: Problem analysis Below-factors contribute to a lower level of education of rural people and indirectly handicap employment of rural people, rural development and fulfilment of citizenship As they are mainly offer-driven, most of continuing education programs are ill-adapted to labor market needs Numbers of daily newspapers, computers and Internet hosts per inhabitant are smaller in Croatia than in Europe. E.g. for Internet hosts: Croatia 184 per 100000 inhabitants, Europe 1336 (UNESCO, 2000) Quantitative impact of existing offer of adult and non formal education is weak considering total Croatian active population: 3.8 millions, (1991). 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h\]hChhCJaJhCJmH sH hChhCJmH sH hCJaJmH sH hHdhCJaJmH sH hChhCJaJmH sH h hhh56CJ#hVh56B*CJaJphhVh56CJaJ%hVh56CJaJmHnHuh56CJaJ      a b c  ! " s v   MlmnxyzG H Z [ k l m   ŽŽ{h3h\aJh xh\aJh\]aJhshOJQJhqhOJQJhhThOJQJmH sH hhTh\ h\U hsh hqhh xh\ h\aJh$h xhCJOJQJaJmH sH 0   b c ! " t u v    mnyzl m  -DM &gd'ugd'uNew technologies are generally more introduced in urban areas because of better infrastructure (phone lines) Croatia still has a large share of population without finished primary school: 18.6% in 2001 For out of school children, schools can organize condensed teaching with individual approach. But condensed teaching is not systematically offered and organized for the out-of-school children. Also the providing of this special education program depends on the possibilities and will of teachers and managers School buildings not suitable in the architectural point of view for handicapped children and specific facilities not available Weak availability of data for quantitative and qualitative impact of adult training. Illiterate rate is still higher for women than men, particularly in rural areas where the education level of men is higher than the education level of women Adult and non formal education in Croatia is essentially offered by 20 Open Public Universities (OPU), of which OPU Zagreb is, by far, the largest. Estimations: 2500 adults for basic and secondary levels, 20000 participants for OPU Zagreb Number of schools providing programs for handicapped children is insufficient, and mostly set in urban areas Monitoring system for non formal and adult education appears to be weak Croatian illiteracy rate (2.1%) is higher than the average rate for Europe (1.4%) (UNESCO Education Report, 2000) Implementation of below-measures contributes to increase the level of education of rural people and indirectly the level of employment, settlement and development in rural areas 6.4 Non-formal and informal education in rural areas: recommendations and expected outcomes In ten years time numbers of daily newspapers, computers and Internet hosts per inhabitant are similar in Croatia and in Europe Within the next five years, the M & E system for non formal education shows a constant and significant increase of training activities in Croatia, specifically for rural beneficiaries. In 5 years time, demand driven approach is applied in all OPUs and other training centers. M & E system shows that appropriateness of the offer is improving In ten years time, Croatian illiteracy rate is similar to rate for Europe. Results for rural areas show a constant decrease both for men and women In 5 years time communications infrastructures and new technologies are well distributed among regions and reach all rural areas In order to adjust the offer of continuing and initial technical /vocational education, carry out training needs assessment anticipating labour market needs & rural development opportunities Adjust existing plan/program for communications infrastructures & new technologies Define and implement special regulation and funding mechanism to encourage decentralized training for youth and adults in rural areas In five year time, below measures and measures taken for primary schooling (see previous chapter) lead similar result in Croatia and Europe for the share of the population without finished primary school Data are available to evaluate quantitative impact and appropriateness of the offer of non formal education for youth and adult, including for rural beneficiaries Access and quality to special programs for out of school children has improved (indicator for out-of school children is gradually decreasing) Access to special programs for handicap children have improved due to school mapping adjustment Encourage private non-formal training offered by NGOs and private companies through appropriate adjustment of existing regulations (e.g.: tax regulation to fund training, regulation for bidding competition ) Adapt and relaunch special programs for youth and adults to reduce illiteracy and incomplete basic education. 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