ࡱ> UO bjbj22 7PePevv N """"###89#T#<#sU#####$ $ $&T(T(T(T(T(T(T$7WYRLT"%$$%%LT""##-U%%%%R"#"#&T%%&T%%RPdS#pSMT%FQTCU0sUR?Z%?Z<S?Z"S,%%%%%%%%LTLT%%%%sU%%%%?Z%%%%%%%%%v : ICT Supported Participatory Governance at the Local Level in Croatia Anamarija MUSA, Ivan KOPRI,Dana DOBRI JAMBROVI, Petra URMAN Summary In an environment of significant social and technological change, contemporary local governments are becoming all the more transparent, open and responsive by using e-participation instruments. The main purpose of this paper is to analyse the implementation of three participatory instruments relying on the use of ICTs at the local level of government in Croatia: e-public consultations, e-participatory budgeting and open data Keywords: participatory local government; e-participation; open data; online public consultations; online participatory budgeting; Croatia Introduction In the past 20 years, information and communication technology (ICT) has increasingly been used by local governments to promote participatory practices and to enhance the involvement of citizens in local decision-making and in service delivery. Within the overall trend towards the use of ICT in administration-citizens relations, digital local governance has been spreading all over the world and in all kinds of community settings and countries at different levels of economic and societal development. The global omnipresence of ICT combined with local innovation and the collaboration of the public, private and civil sectors has made it possible for many to engage in local decision-making and have a say in the local political process. For example, in 2008 the German City of Cologne launched a new e-participation service with the aim of supporting the involvement of citizens in the budgeting process by deciding on budget spending in areas such as public spaces, green spaces or sport. In 2015, Mongolian citizens were given the opportunity to participate in the forum on local expenditures, while in 2015 the South African capital of Cape Town launched its open data portal which was later used to promote quality of life by local civil society organisations in terms of access to sanitation and property ownership. According to the UN e-participation index, in 2005 only 17 countries had a high or very high e-participation index, while in 2018 the same group included 115 countries globally. The above examples point to the fact that the digital revolution has led to profound changes in contemporary public administration which have transformed the internal functioning of public administration and led to its opening towards the environment and stakeholders. ICT supported tools are expected to enable a greater level of transparency and openness, promote accountability as well as inclusive and effective provision of public services, particularly at the local level. For these reasons, in the broader participatory governance framework that emerged in Europe and beyond to mark the contemporary public administration and politics, the role of ICT to promote citizens' participation and engagement has been prominent, both at the national and the local level. In Croatia, in addition to traditional forms of local participation and representation (local councils, referenda, assemblies), new forms of participatory governance emerged in the last decade. Some of the new tools are a consequence of the Europeanisation process which sought the introduction of participatory practices such as e-consultations in the law-making process, the publication of open government data, or were related to innovative collaborative arrangements among the local governments and civil society organisations (e-participatory budgeting). However, deficiencies in the local government system in Croatia, such as fragmentation and the weak capacities of a significant number of local units, may have contributed to the scattered picture of the e-participation initiatives in Croatia. This paper aims to present and analyse the application of ICT supported instruments of participatory governance at the local level in Croatia. For that purpose, chapter II briefly discusses the concept of ICT supported participatory governance while chapter III presents the e-participation standards promoted in Europe. Chapter IV presents the developments of Croatian participatory governance at the local level within the framework of Europeanisation. The state of play of the e-participatory government framework and practices in Croatia e-consultations, e-participatory budgeting and local open data portals are presented and analysed in chapter V. Finally, the discussion and conclusions are drawn in chapter V. The role of ICTs in promoting participatory government Participatory government is based on three core principles: transparency (the visibility of government functioning and availability of government information to the public), openness (two-way process of interaction between the government and the public) and responsiveness (related to openness and referring to the government's reaction to public input). In other words, transparency is a precondition for government openness exercised in practice via different instruments of public participation which is expected to enhance a government's responsiveness to a society's needs and which leads to better decisions and increased legitimacy. The implementation of the principles and goals of participatory government has widely been underpinned by the development of digital technology. In general, the use of ICTs in public administration termed as e-government has two main raisons d'tre. First, it is expected to promote democratization by increasing the visibility of interactions between the government and the public, leading to strengthened government legitimacy. Second, digitalization increases the efficiency of public administration functioning, both within administrative organizations (internal communication, coordination etc.) and between administrative organizations on the one hand and citizens, businesses, and the wider public on the other hand. When it comes to citizens' involvement in policy and decision-making processes, the use of ICTs considerably enriches the participatory landscape. Simply put, e-participation can be seen as a specific segment of e-government which focuses on citizens' engagement in decision-making and service delivery. Being a part of e-government, it inevitably presupposes that a government of any level is included in the participatory practice as an initiator, moderator, or receiver. The UN defines it as the process of engaging citizens through ICTs in policy, decision-making, and service design and delivery so as to make it participatory, inclusive and deliberative. E-participation encompasses a wide spectrum of instruments. Most of them have existed in traditional, offline forms as well, being refreshed by the means of modern ICT (e.g. referenda, public consultations, etc.). Today, however, e-participation includes different instruments for citizens' consulting and decision-making as well as service delivery; from e-voting and e-referenda to e-petitions, e-forums, e-public consultations, public information websites and portals, participatory budgeting, co-production practices etc., including some entirely new online instruments (GIS public participation, open data portals, simulation games). Compared to traditional instruments, the potential of digital participatory government lies, first, in enabling the interaction of a large number of citizens, regardless of time and the physical location of their involvement. Second, e-participation provides opportunities for greater interactivity among participants by reducing or eliminating visual barriers related to physical, socio-economic and other characteristics. Third, it increases the transparency of policy making and decision-making processes. Finally, e-participation is expected to reduce the costs of participation not only for citizens, but for governments as well. On the other hand, having in mind the problem of digital divide, it is also possible for e-participation instruments to foster other existing or new discrepancies. However, the ambition to promote participation and effective governance by using the ICT is not a guarantee that it will really happen,  since the practical implications are contingent on many factors. European standards promoting e-participation in local government The development of the EU framework for civic participation stretches over the last thirty years, with a gradual introduction of-ICT enabled practices. Article 10 of the Treaty on the European Union incorporates the principle of participation in democratic life into the foundations of the Union's functioning, while the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights (2012) includes the right of access to information into the Union's catalogue of rights (Article 42), along with the right to launch petitions (Article 43), the right to participate in local elections (Article 40) and the right to good administration (Article 41). The current EU policy framework Digital Strategy for Europe (adopted for the 2020s digital decade ) rests upon four pillars; the third one aiming at the development of an Open, Democratic and Sustainable Society. In order to promote the availability of public information, e-inclusion and participation, the EU has introduced several initiatives, including the re-use of public sector information and open data, web accessibility, and digital skills development, as well as the development of other enabling conditions for e-participation (e.g. safe internet, broadband connections etc.). The EU itself has promoted several e-participation tools, such as the Transparency Register (2011), the European Citizens Initiative (2012), the e-Petitions platform (2014), EU e-public consultations (2015), the EU Open Data Portal (2015), and others. The other key actor in promoting e-participation is the Council of Europe (CoE). There are several recommendations and other documents on aiming to enhance participation as a democracy tool and on using ICT to facilitate the processes in local government. The fundamental CoE document on local participatory governance is the Additional Protocol to the European Charter of Local Self-Government on the Right to Participate in the Affairs of a Local Authority (CETs no. 207 of 2009) which requires States to support citizens' right to participate in local authorities' affairs by incentivising the local units to ensure participation and by regulating specific instruments, such as consultations, local referendums, petitions, access to information, proposals, participation of vulnerable groups, including the use of ICT to promote and exercise the right to participate. The E-Democracy Recommendation of the Congress of Local and Regional Authorities (CLRAE) called upon national authorities to facilitate the exchange of experiences at the local level and to develop good practice so that local authorities could implement e-democracy without risks and barriers and conduct research on the potential health risks associated with the use of ICT (CLRAE, Rec(2009)274). The Parliamentary Assembly recommended that Member States develop legal standards for the use of e-tools in the political process and eliminate deficiencies, and possible abuses of human rights and security, information, data protection, document security, networking, etc. (PA, Res(2009)1653). Finally, the recent Recommendation on the Participation of Citizens in Local Public Life (CM/Rec(2018)4) supports national and local initiatives and policies which lead to the effective application of participatory instruments. Specific recommendations refer to participation in local elections, i.e., representative democracy, citizen participation in local government, and vulnerable groups, as well as the inclusion of civic education in school curricula in order to promote awareness of an individual's responsibilities in a democratic society. The maximum use of new ICTs in the areas of access to information, voting in elections, public consultations, evaluation of the work of local institutions, cooperation between public authorities and civil society organizations, among others, is expected to contribute to the achievement of this goal. The role of Europeanisation in promoting e-participation in local government in Croatia A brief overview of the local government system in Croatia The local self-government system in Croatia is organized at two levels, so that the administrative-territorial division includes municipalities (428) and cities (127) at the first level and counties (20) at the second, regional level. Croatian municipalities are small on average (2,957 inhabitants), although there are exceptions. In addition to the capital City of Zagreb, in the group of 17 big cities with more than 35,000 inhabitants, there are three cities (Split, Rijeka, and Osijek) with more than 100,000 inhabitants and that serve as regional centres. Counties, cities and municipalities are self-government units with their own scope of affairs, supplemented with delegated state administration functions (predominantly the capital city of Zagreb, counties, big cities). Forms of sub-municipal decentralization also exist, with the purpose of citizens' participation in decision-making on local affairs of direct and daily impact on their lives and work in more than 3,500 sub-municipal councils. In addition to representation through the election of local council members, citizens can also participate in local referenda, start citizens initiatives and directly participate in discussions convened by the local assembly. However, the forms of direct participation are not widely used by citizens despite their potential to be very useful participation tools and a means for influencing decision-making processes.  The weaknesses of territorial structure and functions which have appeared to be too fragmented reflect on local units' functioning, capacities and local services. The financial and personal capacities of local governments are weak in general and are unable to provide equal quality and scope of local services to citizens. These circumstances also reflect on participatory practices or the lack of thereof. The Europeanisation of Croatian public administration and e-participation The development of e-participation instruments in Croatia is inevitably linked to the Europeanisation process both directly, via the development of various tools for citizens' participation, and indirectly, via e-government development policies, the strengthening of civil society, anti-corruption policy and local government development. However, general processes of democratisation, digitalisation and globalisation have also incentivised the emergence of e-participation practices by creating a favourable environment for innovation, inclusion and collaboration, in terms of both supply and demand. Europeanisation, in terms of the EU's impact in Croatia, started in 2001 when EU membership became a strategic national interest as well as a key foreign policy goal and peaked on 1 July 2013 with EU membership. Over the course of almost a decade and a half, Croatian public administration has undergone numerous reforms aimed at improving public administration's capacity of adhering to EU membership (e.g. administrative procedure and justice, civil service, strategic management and coordination, public finances, etc.). In line with the principles of European administrative space (e.g. the rule of law, transparency, accountability, effectiveness and others) adjustments have been made at the local level to strengthen democratic legitimacy (e.g. local councils and local elections), enhance the capacities for absorbing EU funds and development capacities. The EU political criteria of democracy and the rule of law required that Croatia strengthen the democratic potential of its institutions and public administration's overall capacity and accountability, including better law-making practices, in order to build a modern, reliable, transparent and citizens-oriented public service. The issues related to e-participation were also addressed by the accession of Chapter 23 Judiciary and Fundamental rights in terms of the necessity to improve the anti-corruption policy and rights of the citizens (e.g. right of access to information; right to participate in local elections, etc.). In such context, Europeanisation's influences through its anti-corruption policy and general administrative capacity policy have directly led to the adoption of the legal framework for transparency and openness. In this context, one of the key developments that formally set the scene for e-participation was the development of the legal framework for the right of access to information which was granted the status of a constitutional right in 2010 and further regulated in the Law on the Right of Access to Information (LRAI) in 2013. Besides transparency in terms of publication and accessibility of information, this legislative instrument has also reflected on e-participation in terms of public administration's openness to the input of citizens; it prescribes public authorities' firm legal obligation to conduct e-public consultations and also requires that they publish data in open formats which allow citizens, media, academia and businesses to re-use the information in order to create additional value (apps, analyses, etc.). Both issues were the result of Europeanisation pressures to harmonise with the informal EU acquis on public consultations and the transposition of the Directive on the re-use of public sector information of 2003. In addition, the monitoring of the implementation of the obligations has been entrusted to the newly-established independent authority of the Information Commissioner (IC) responsible for the protection and oversight of the LRAI. In addition to the effects of the EU, the Europeanisation of the public administration in Croatia is, to a certain extent, the result of its membership in the Council of Europe since 1996. Croatia ratified the European Charter on Local Self-Government (partially in 1997, fully in 2007), but has never accessed the Additional Protocol on the Right to Participate in the Affairs of a Local Authority of 2009. However, as any other party of the CoE, Croatia follows recommendations and other instruments of the Council of Ministers and CLRAE (see chapter III B), as well as initiatives and practices. Moreover, there has been a strong impetus from the EU, the CoE and international forums towards e-government development in terms of online information, communication and service provision for citizens and businesses. The example of global online participatory governance influence includes the Open Government Partnership Initiative (OGP) to which Croatia accessed in 2011 by adopting the first action plan aimed at the introduction of numerous improvements in the relationship between administration and citizens, most of them facilitated by ICT. E-participation in Croatian local government: three case studies In the following sub-parts, the specific e-participation instruments as they are applied in Croatian local government are analysed and discussed. The methods used include desktop web analytics of websites and portals, legal and content analysis, and the use of secondary data. Each sub-chapter is structured as to present a short overview of the instrument's role, policy and legal framework in Croatia and the research findings. E-public consultations Participation through consultations Public consultations represent one of the most common instruments for public participation in the process of formulating public policies, including preparation draft laws, secondary legislation and other acts and policy documents. The techniques of presentation and providing feedback can vary from offline to online modes, or a combination of both. In general, the online mode includes the publication of the draft and the possibility for the public to submit comments and proposals online, with the results of the assessment of the comments by public authority and the new proposal also published online. Today, e-consultations have become a standard in implementation, and are most often conducted via specialised portals. Online consultations are supposed to have several advantages over their offline modes (e.g. forms of public hearings). They are related to possibly larger numbers of participants, greater interactivity, reducing different physical barriers etc., although they can also deepen the problem of digital divide. Public consultations represent an inherent element of better regulation.  They are subject to the recommendations and documents of the EU, the Council of Europe, the OECD and others. Common standards for the implementation of public consultations include process transparency, the early-stage involvement of the public, sufficient timeframes for sending comments, and providing feedback to participants. Public consultations represent an established practice at the level of European institutions as an informal acquis or legally binding practice in sectoral legislation (e.g. telecom, waste management), which has been adopted at the level of member states as well. E-consultations in Croatian local government Public consultations (offline and online) were introduced in Croatia in 2009 by the Government Code of Practice on Consultation with the Interested Public in the Process of Adopting Laws, Other Regulations and Documents. However, the provisions of the Code lacked a statutory force; they presented a self-created code of practice for the government and its central administration bodies without a sanction or pressure mechanism. Public consultations, in their online form (e-consultations), became obligatory to all public authorities including the local government and their organisations (companies, establishments) in 2013 with the adoption of the LRAI (and its subsequent amendments in 2015). The process was facilitated for the central authorities with the launch of an e-consultations platform (eSavjetovanja, eng. eConsultations)  in 2015, providing local governments with the possibility to join the platform or to use the same non-proprietary software to establish their own portals. The process has been facilitated in terms of technical and training support by designated Government offices for the central level (Office for Civil Society Organisation, from 2018 Office for Legislation) and the Information Commissioner (for all public bodies). Both bodies monitor the implementation and prepare annual reports. The e-consultation procedure (Article 11 of the LRAI) consists of a notice published by a public authority containing a proposal with the explanation of the goals and main accents of the act, and an invitation for the public to submit their proposals and comments within a provisional timeframe of 30 days (the public body must justify its reasons for applying a shorter period). Upon the finalisation of the process, the public authority must prepare and publish a report and respond to the comments with an explanation as to why a certain proposal has not been accepted. In addition, public authorities are free to initiate other forms of consultations such as focus groups, e-mail collection of proposals and the like, but must report on them in order for the process to remain transparent. While state administration organizations have started to conduct e-consultations more consistently from 2013 onwards, IC Annual Reports and monitoring, as well as scientific research efforts,  suggest that local governments have continuously been lagging behind the central government. The failure to consult citizens in the first years could have been attributed to the low capacity of small units, low awareness and skills development, but also to insufficient pressure on the behalf of citizens, local civil society organisations and local businesses who were not aware of the possibilities of e-participation or suitably skilled to participate (especially the units with an older and rural population). Nevertheless, the number as well as the quality of e-consultations conducted at the local and regional levels has continuously grown each year, mostly as a result of the monitoring (analysis, reporting) and promotion of the consultations practice through training, education campaigns and workshops by the Government Office and the IC. For instance, according to the IC Annual Report for 2019, the number of conducted e-consultations at the local level has risen 6,5 times - from 604 in 2015 to 3.986 in 2019 (the data is based on self-reporting; see Figure 1). Still, local governments often fail to conduct e-consultations, while some of them (mostly smaller local units) completely neglect this legal requirement by failing to conduct consultations when adopting the general acts (240 or 43,24% of local units in 2016, but only 54 or 9,45% of local units in 2018, according to the IC Annual Reports for respective years). However, at the same time most local governments respect their obligations to conduct (mostly offline) public consultations on specific issues as regulated by specific regulation on environmental protection, on building and spatial planning and the like. Figure 1. E-consultations at the local and regional levels of government 2015-2019  EMBED Excel.Chart.8 \s  Source: Authors, based on the IC Annual Reports for the period 2015-2019 Empirical research on e-consultations in the period 2016-2018 at the central and local levels has shown serious shortcomings related to the mode of e-consultations implemented at the local level and also pointed to unrealised democratic potential. First of all, the number of conducted e-consultations per local government is low (for 102 local units it totals 27 per unit during 3 years) and has varied significantly, depending on the regulatory activity and also on their adherence to law requirements, with cities being more active than municipalities and counties, which conducted the least consultations. Secondly, in sharp contrast to the principle of sufficient time for consultations, the average duration at the local level is 20 days, less than the average at the central level (25 days) and less than the legal requirement of 30 days. Thirdly, the clarity of e-consultations in terms of the presence of accompanying documents and explanations, which is a precondition for the public's understanding of the subject and for their involvement, is weak; on a scale from 1 to 4, local governments median value is 2 (only a basic justification of the act). Still, they scored better than central ministries (1: absence of any justifications), but significantly lower than central public agencies (4: with detailed justifications). The same research has shown that public interest and familiarization with the e-consultation procedure seem to be very low at the local level. In the period 2016-2018, in the 102 analysed local units, the average number of participants per e-consultations was 0,5 while the average number of comments per e-consultation was only 0,8 (2.467 in total) meaning that a significant part of e-consultations ended without any public involvement. The majority of comments was submitted by individual citizens (54,8%), followed by civil society organizations (21,8%) and private sector organizations (10,7%), with a very low share of other categories of participants (academia, other public bodies, etc.). However, the share of accepted and partially accepted comments is higher at the local level (35,8%) than at the central state level (23,8%), especially in relation to comments comprising the attitudes and opinions of citizens (22,7%), which is in line with the principal orientation of local government towards the local community's interests and needs. However, the fact that 41,4% of proposals are being rejected remains a challenge. E-participatory budgeting Participatory budgeting as a tool for citizens' participation Present from the late 1980s, citizen participation in budgeting, as a form of direct democracy, offers citizens the opportunity to learn about the distribution of public funds and their impact on community life, as well as to be included in the deliberative process and political decision-making. There are different models of participatory budgeting (PB) depending on the matter of discussion (specific needs or projects, municipal budget in total, etc.), the central actor which initiates and coordinates the PB (local government, civil society, citizens, private interests), citizens capacity to participate and the level of participation. Regardless of the model accepted, the PB can be implemented through three forms: (1) offline (e.g., public hearings, citizen surveys, advisory boards, forums, workshops, voting / budget referenda, citizen panels, and focus groups), (2) online, using ICT, and in (3) hybrid form, in which citizens participate off- and online. In the last decade, with the rise of the use of ICT, the online PB has become increasingly popular as a platform for citizens' e-participation. Scholarly literature has highlighted the key advantages of online conducted PB, such as improved transparency, cost and time efficiency, convenience for participants, increased rate of participation, etc. On the other side, the online form of PB faces the challenges of digital divide and possible preferential access for some individuals, the problems of expensiveness for some local governments (software, training), the issues of privacy and information system security (hacking, viruses), the community challenge (since the tool is very individualistic), and the problem of manipulation by politicians or individuals (e.g. overflowing comments, directed participation, etc.). However, the real challenge for local authorities is how to ensure the continuity of online PB implementation and how to maintain citizens' interest in getting involved in the process. E-participatory budgeting in Croatia There is no specific legal framework on participatory budgeting in Croatia. The differential (formalistic) interpretation of the character of the budget has led to different opinions, whether under the current legislation (LRAI) the budget should be considered as a legislative document, or a general act or a planning document falling under the obligation of public consultations. The legislation regulating budgetary processes does not require consultations for the adoption of the budget (only the publication of the final budget), but it surely does not prohibit local governments from discussing the proposal of the budget with citizens. Given such an unclear image on the obligations and possibilities of local governments to engage citizens into PB, the practice varies; with some local governments conducting e-consultations on their budget proposals, and a dozen others mostly applying more refined PB models. As a pioneer, the City of Pazin introduced the PB practice in 2014 with the aim of a more active citizen involvement in the process of adopting the budget for 2015, but the PB practice in this small town (less than 9.000 inhabitants) has remained a regular means of e-participation to this day. The initial PB was part of the EU-funded project conducted with external partners (civil society and academic organisations and the Association of Cities). The process was supported through a printed brochure and several digital tools: an announcement video posted on Youtube, the Citys official website, and a forum for online public hearings. Citizens were invited to send proposals for communal actions that they believed should be included in the budget, which led to more than 100 proposals for communal actions which were subsequently processed, locations were then photographed, and a financial assessment of each proposal was made. Offline public consultations were held at the level of 12 sub-municipal councils where citizens (20 on average) were able to vote for the proposals. After the first reading of the budget at the City Council session in December 2014, the draft budget proposal was presented to the citizens at a general public hearing where their proposals were included in the document. The final budget proposal was adopted and published on the City's website, accompanied by a simplified visualization of the budget as well as a simplified budgetary guide. The suggested actions included the construction of recreation facilities, traffic construction and renovation (bus shelters, roads), waste management infrastructure construction, sidewalks and parking facilities, street-lights and the like. In the following years the City has continued to engage citizens in online PB in a similar manner, so that in the period 2014-2019, 904 citizens in total participated in the project proposing 564 communal actions, out of which 147 actions were selected by voting. An online survey on citizens satisfaction shows that 68% of respondents (161 votes out of 238) still believe that the part of the budget which is open for discussion should be larger, while 16% (38) of respondents believe that the budget that citizens decide on should be reduced. Another PB trend-setter, the City of Rijeka, has been implementing several models of PB, along with other innovative e-government projects supported by the City government unit for ICT. The first model focuses on improving the communal standard and harmonizing the equipment standards of sub-municipal councils. Every year, the City Council adopts the Plan for the Allocation of Funds for Communal Priorities of Sub-Municipal Councils and publishes a public call for proposing priorities. Sub-municipal councils, citizens, authorized representatives of co-owners of residential and commercial buildings, and citizens associations can submit proposals either in person, by mail, via e-mail, or through online forms. All processed applications are submitted to sub-municipal councils for adoption. The second model is the online educational game Budget(me), an interactive tool for direct communication between citizens and the mayor on the budget proposal. In addition to becoming familiarized with the current budget items, the citizens can choose projects they would like to implement, by sending their budget proposals. There are other similar examples of PB implementation in Croatia. The City of Pula launched a project for consulting citizens on the budget at the municipal level through an e-consultation portal and e-mail. The City of Buzet has updated their official website with a new application: Create a budget!, which enables citizens to get acquainted with the basics of creating a city budget and propose guidelines for its creation through an interactive portal. Following the example of the City of Rijeka's online educational game, in 2017 the City of Sisak developed the application MyBudget through which citizens can propose the distribution of budget items and funds, with a turnout of 346 proposals in the first year, some of them being incorporated into the budget. Moreover, the introduction of PB has been on its way in several other cities such as Dubrovnik (PB for school pupils), Slavonski Brod (PB as web forms for proposals) and Trogir (online proposals). However, in most local governments the PB is still at the level of information (through official websites) and offline advisory consultations (through sub-municipal level or public forums). Interestingly, three out of the four largest cities (with the exception of Rijeka) with one quarter of the country's population do not apply any form of PB (the capital Zagreb, Split, and Osijek). Open Data Open data and citizens' involvement The trend towards the preparation and publication of public administration information in a machine-readable and open format which enables computerised data processing (open data; hereinafter OD) is one of the most distinctive processes of e-government and e-participation development in the last two decades. In contrast to traditional transparency which focuses on citizens' pure consummation of information regardless of the form (written on paper, video, audio, electronic, etc.) primarily for the sake of the democratic process, OD presupposes that the data is available in electronic form, either on the internet (websites, portals, repositories) or available on request on an electronic medium (e.g. USB or DVD), to be used and reused for commercial and non-commercial purposes. The users - citizens, civil society organisations, the private sector, academia, media, other public bodies - are expected to create an added value in the form of applications (e.g. traffic, housing, or facilities apps), sophisticated business products based on OD (e.g. legal information portals, business portals), research and analyses conducted by academia, consultants or media, visualisations presenting complex information to the final users (e.g. financial or performance data), collaborative and community tools, etc. At the local level, the use of OD which is transparent, consistent and complete helps meet local needs (e.g. buying a house in a community based on data on the availability of local services, the crime rate, living costs, etc.), it develops collaborative tools which help build trust between the local government and citizens (e.g. joint projects which rely on OD), it supports access to services and innovation, it facilitates local governments' transformation towards citizen-oriented service and to improve accountability, efficiency and effectiveness, it decreases local governments' costs related to data management in the long run, etc. On the other side, OD require an organisational capacity in terms of personnel, skills and funding, awareness-raising activities and, after all, the demand and innovation capacity on the part of users, as well as primary users' enhanced digital skills (media, academia, SMEs) with at least some digital skills on part of end users (citizens). After all, not all data is open data; the technical characteristics of data such as data quality (in accordance with the Five-star rating model), openness (open standard licences are the norm), findability and availability, etc. determine the value of data for further re-use. The OD has increasingly been promoted by international civil society, IT experts and business actors (W3, Open Data Institute, etc.), international organisations (OECD, UN, WB), as well as by governments in the OGP and signatories to the International Open Data Charter (signed by G8 in 2013). Many countries worldwide adopted OD policies but in 2003 the EU moved the trend forward by adopting a directive (the PSI Directive, now the OD Directive)  which requires member states to ensure that public sector information is available to all users, at all levels of government and by all kinds of public bodies including public companies, and to establish OD portals, now gathered under the European data portal. Local open data practice in Croatia The formal obligation to make information available as OD is regulated in the LRAI, the law that transposes the PSI Directive. Each public body has to ensure that data is made public on the internet whenever it is possible. This mostly concerns structured data such as tables, registers, lists, databases (especially financial information), statistical and performance information, etc. OD must be as free as possible (available, free of charge) and users may request it from public bodies (and have the right to appeal to the IC). In general, OD is available on public bodies' websites and specialised portals (e.g. environment, statistics, finances, geodata etc.) and is often (but not always) published (via APIs or other means) on the national Open data portal established in 2015. Although OD has been present in Croatia since 2013 (even earlier in some sectors such as statistics or geodata) the open by default principle of OD is still not a norm in Croatian public administration, as found by the IC Annual Reports. In the last five years, at the local level, OD have been increasingly available on local governments' and local public bodies' websites. In accordance with the legal obligation of proactive publication in machine-readable formats (Article 10 of the LRAI) the datasets mostly include institutional and financial data such as reports, budgetary information, public procurement information, registers and lists, statistical data, etc., which can be used to increase accountability or create services. Notable examples include the cities of Pula and Osijek, as well as the Krapina Zagorje County. Also, local governments offer geospatial and urban planning data often (but not always) for free in open format, which is an obligation under special legislation. However, the analyses of the IC have shown that the monitored local governments have only partially published their data in open format. However, two trends in the provision of OD at the local level are especially visible. The first trend includes the establishment of local OD portals which serve as one-stop-shop services for local government OD. Currently, there are four city OD portals the City of Zagreb (established in 2015, with 71 datasets), the City of Rijeka (2016, 131 datasets), the City of Virovitica (2017, 6 datasets), and the City of Vara~din (2020, 18 datasets). The portals present datasets at quality level 2 or 3 (out of 5) in the area of education and health, business and tourism, environment, energy, transport, public finances, infrastructure, institutional and statistical data, etc. However, some portals have not been frequently updated and supported, with the OD portal of the City of Rijeka displaying the most recent and valuable datasets. The other trend is connected to local governments' (mostly mayors') efforts to ensure city governments' greater transparency by making data accessible to citizens through visualisations and data analysis. These platforms also enable users to access the raw, open data, and to re-use them for their own innovative purposes. The best practice examples are offered by the City of Bjelovar (Transparency portal offering transactions) or the City of Split (MySplit portal offering data on city finances and assets, as well as transactions with the private sector). A similar case can be found at the county level; in 2017 the Association of Croatian Counties developed the Open Budget application which offers visualizations of the budgetary data of all 20 Croatian counties and the City of Zagreb. These applications are examples of the participation of the private sector, academia and citizens in the co-creation of ICT-supported services, mostly developed through joint publicly-funded projects. On the part of users, there are various examples of the re-use of OD available on websites and portals in media and academic research as well as in the development of applications which serve the community. One example is the kindergarten app built by local citizens that helps parents in their selection of an appropriate kindergarten for their children. Other local apps reported on the national OD portal include apps for locating city real estate, restaurants, bus traffic, and the like. Discussion and conclusion The image of the development and the application of e-participation instruments in the local government in Croatia points to some common trends and challenges. Firstly, over the last 10 years the adoption of e-participation practices has been strongly influenced by the process of Europeanisation in terms of the strengthening of citizens' rights and democratic practices through the introduction of formal procedures and obligations (e-consultations and open data), through the strengthening the capacities of local units in terms of resources, or through the introduction of collaborative project arrangements funded by the EU (e-participatory budgeting, local open data portals). The first approach can be termed a top-down, while the second a bottom-up process of innovation, incentivized from local government stakeholders or mayors themselves. The efforts invested in the implementation of the legal framework regulating access to information, including public consultations and open data, have improved Croatia's international transparency rankings. For instance, Bertelsmann Stiftung's Sustainable Governance indicator on access to government information increased from 6 in 2014 to 8 in 2018. This improvement moved Croatia's ranking in this area among EU Member States from 23rd in 2014 to 10th in 2018. The data for local governments' e-consultations presented in this article also point to progress, as well as to the spread of local open data. In contrast to the formally established instruments of e-consultation and open data, participatory budgeting has spread by diffusion from one local unit to another on the shoulders of citizens-oriented mayors and civil society organisations. This trend resembles the forms of direct democracy and citizen participation which were established at the local level in the pre-1990s self-management system albeit in a different political environment and in a rather new, genuine manner. Regardless of the directive or incentives, both approaches prove to be effective in promoting cases of the ICT supported participation of local citizenry. Secondly, the introduction of new institutional channels of participation does not automatically lead to their effective usage in practice. The question remains: what encourages citizens to use participatory instruments and do they perceive them as powerful in terms of voicing their interests and concerns with a response from the local government? The data on e-consultations shows that citizens' voices do have an effect on the decision-making process and certain examples of participatory budgeting indicate that the local populations' views on spending public resources are being considered. However, with the intensified usage of these instruments in practice, it will be possible to draw more detailed analyses on the real effects of citizens' inclusion in local decision-making. Another conclusion drawn in this study on e-participation instruments is that relying on individual citizens as active political agents is a false promise. It stems from a simplified idea of local democracy as an arena in which a sole citizen can make a difference in political processes. Rather, our data indicates that local civil society and the local business sector are indispensable in that regard because they engage in collaborative processes, such as projects aimed at the introduction of participatory budgeting or partnerships in developing local open data portals. Local entrepreneurs and businesses in general are taking on both the role of the user of local open data, placing pressure on the local government to release information, but also of a partner in developing portals and applications based on open data. Civil society, comprising more than 52,000 citizen associations, informal civic initiatives, and other forms of citizen engagement, has considerable participatory potential. Several local societal networks, such as youth councils, councils for crime prevention, local action groups, and others exert some influence due to their specialisation. In contrast, and partially due to the intensive fragmentation of the local level, the lack of civil society organisations which would promote general civic engagement might be considered as an important challenge for the broader application of local participatory instruments. Similarly, businesses rely on the economy of scale and are less incentivised to use and work in smaller communities. Thus, e-participation practices, especially those that are not legally required, remain tied to larger cities and local communities. This opens up the question of citizens' equal treatment, which adds to the general problem of digital divide when it comes to the usage of online instruments of participation, in terms of certain societal groups having less opportunity to participate due to lack of resources, skills of motivation. Last but not least, the analysis of the online participation tools indicates that their potential for building citizens' trust in government and strengthening political legitimacy is not fully reflected in the frequency and extent of their usage. The legitimacy problem is among the most important governance problems in Croatia, one of the lowest among EU member states, and urges for an effective response. According to the Autumn 2018 Eurobarometer, only 23 percent of Croatian citizens tend to trust local and regional authorities. Such a response hardly comes from the general local governance legislation, focused mainly on the strengthening position of directly elected mayors; it is much more related to the legal and policy initiatives related to access to information, open data, and public consultations (LRAI, OGP and anti-corruption policies). Given that trust may be enhanced by improving the responsiveness of local governments, the opportunities which arise from participatory instruments as a means for building trust is self-evident. In sum, in spite of a flawed and rather patchy local participation in Croatia, a variety of online participation channels has opened up a whole range of opportunities for citizens, as well as the civil and private sector, to influence political decision-making and the implementation of local policies; it also contributes to trust in government and political legitimacy, and can improve local governments' overall efficiency and effectiveness.  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