ࡱ> VoUyy7 fNbjbjUU 7|7|C8lD\D.Wm!\-------$/ 2-}5"W}}-!s.!!!}JR-!}-!B!c#,hp"- p r Zb--.0.r-2!2-! NEW ENGINEERING CONCEPTS OF STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY Dra~an Kozak, Milan Kljajin and }eljko Ivandi Integrity assessment, R6 routine, FAD, crack driving force, ETM model, SINTAP procedure Introduction In many engineering areas, such as pressurised components, marine structures, aerospace structures, civil engineering, rock mechanics, and more recently microelectronic components, an assessment of structural integrity becomes necessary. If these structures contain a crack-like flaw, fracture mechanics approach is indispensable. It enables the engineer to predict the behaviour of structural components with cracks. The historic development of fracture mechanics has led to the creation of numerous national and international standards describing the experimental determination of the resistance to crack extension. Most known of them is the Book of Standards of American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM), which contains 10 standards related to fracture mechanics parameters estimation (f.e. ASTM E 399-90 standard test method for planestrain fracture toughness of metallic materials [1] or ASTM E 813 for JIC measurement [2]). Very useful is British standard BS 7910:2000 [3] also presenting the guide on methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in metallic structures etc. In the ESIS P2-92 document [4] European Structural Integrity Society (ESIS) describes the procedure for determining the fracture behaviour of materials from the linear elastic regime to the fully plastic regime. This document was extended by GKSS test procedure for determining the fracture behaviour of materials EFAM GTP 94 [5], which introduces additional features, such as the d5 crack opening displacement, centre cracked tensile specimen, shallow cracks, testing of weldments and guidance for statistical treatment of scattered data. All these documents describe the procedures for the determination of the crack extension resistance R, as a material property. This value has to be compared with some of crack tip loading parameters, f.e. stress intensity factor K, the J-integral or crack tip opening displacement CTOD. However, this is not enough for structure integrity assessment. Firstly, in the component to be assessed, a crack is either found by non-destructive inspection (NDI) or assumed to be present. The yield load FY of the cracked cross section must be determined. The information on crack size and loading has to be transformed into a crack tip loading parameter. For the material and its operating conditions, e.g. temperature, environment, static or cyclic loading, the appropriate property has to be determined. From the comparison of the loading parameter with the material resistance to crack extension the safety margin between service and failure conditions should be determined. This margin can be determined in terms of applied load (or deformation), crack size or residual lifetime. To this purpose two different procedures have been developed: R6-Routine [6] based on Failure Assessment Diagram (FAD philosophy) and Engineering Treatment Model - ETM [7] with basic concept of Crack Driving Force (CDF). Both procedures are included in the new European SINTAP [9] project, which is developing as a draft for subsequent standardisation of fracture mechanics based flaw assessment methods on a European level. The EU commission sponsored this project in which 17 research institutions and industrial companies were involved. This article reviews the basic principles of the SINTAP procedure. Basic principles of a fracture mechanics safety analysis The failure condition can be reached by either increase in load or stable crack extension. Fig. 1 gives a simplified view for the area of linear elastic behaviour. The determination of material properties (Kmat, Jmat or dmat) is for many practical cases covered by national and international test standards, where the subscript  mat stands for any suitable definition of fracture toughness.  EMBED Word.Picture.8  Figure 1. Service condition of component relative to failure The fracture appears if the operating (max. applied) stress smax reached its critical value sc or pre-existing crack grows from its original size ao due to fatigue, corrosion or creep to the size at instability ac. As an accurate treatment of the failure condition (K = Kmat, J = Jmat or d = dmat) requires usually costly and time consuming finite element analyses for determining the crack tip loading, or is virtually impossible since the test conditions do not meet constraint situation in the component, engineering assessment methods have been developed which are supposed to provide results on the safe side. The determination of crack size needs some of NDI methods, where the result is frequently projected onto the plane perpendicular to the highest principal normal stress. Three different kinds of cracks have to be distinguished here: a through-thickness crack, which is represented by a circumscribing rectangle with length 2a, a surface crack, which is replaced with a semi ellipse with the half axes a and c and a buried (embedded) crack, which crack is replaced with an ellipse with the axes 2a and 2c. If there are several cracks adjacent to each other, then they may interact, thus giving rise to a fictitious crack. The stresses acting on a cross section of a component can be due to several origins: applied forces, inertia forces, stress elevation at stress concentrators, residual stresses and thermal stresses. The sum of these components can be converted to a stress intensity profile across the cross section. If the load applied during service leads to crack extension, we meet the classical problem in exploitation. It is necessary to determinate either critical crack length with applied load given or residual lifetime with initial crack size given. Two engineering approaches for assessing the severity of crack-like defects based on fracture mechanics have been developed, which will be briefly described in the next sections. The crack driving force (CDF) approach The crack resistance curve (R-curve) has to be determined on a specimen with a thickness equal to that of the component, then that applied load (force, stress) has to be sought for which provides tangency condition of the crack tip loading curve with the R-curve (Fig. 2). The crack tip loading, usually in terms of CTOD (d5) or J-integral, is calculated by finite element analysis as a function of a for several constant values of the applied stress, until that stress equal to sc is found that meets the condition of tangency.  EMBED Word.Picture.8  Figure 2. Ductile tearing analysis against instability (R-curve method) The failure assessment diagram (FAD) approach It uses normalised driving force and load axes, and the area under the failure assessment diagram represents conditions of safe operation whereas failure is to be expected when the service point lies outside the curve.  EMBED Word.Picture.8  Figure 3. FAD: Basic analysis against fracture toughness British Energy has developed this so-called R6 method for assessing their power plants. As the development started very early (in the 70s) and has always been aimed at immediate practical application, this method has found widespread application and has influenced a number of industrial codes. Its core is represented by the FAD with its general formulation Kr = f (Lr), where Kr = K/Kmat represents the applied stress intensity factor normalised with fracture toughness and Lr = F/FY is the applied load normalised with the yield load. If fracture toughness is given in terms of Jmat the conversation EMBED Equation.3 (1) is used. If the stress  strain curve of the material is known, R6 offers a material specific, geometry independent FAD: EMBED Equation.3 (2) In this equation, eref is a reference strain on the true stress  strain curve corresponding to the reference stress sref = LrsY. In practice, accurate information on the stress  strain curve is frequently not available. For those cases, a general, material independent curve is given: EMBED Equation.3 (3) The R6 method provides also hints for the determination of material properties and can thus be regarded as a comprehensive method. The Engineering Flaw Assessment Method (EFAM) The basis of the CTOD (in terms of d5) or the J-integral as crack driving force parameters estimates is the Engineering Treatment Model (ETM) as outlined in document EFAM ETM 97 developed at GKSS Research Center. It contains the expressions for two different loading ranges: a) Small scale yielding (F d" FY) Under conditions of contained plasticity (small scale yielding), crack tip loading is given by EMBED Equation.3 (4) where EMBED Equation.3 EMBED Equation.3 EMBED Equation.3 EMBED Equation.3 or, alternatively, EMBED Equation.3 (5) b) Fully plastic yielding (F > FY) In the fully plastic state, the CTOD and the J-integral are extrapolated using the strain hardening exponent N, starting from the values d5 or JY, at F = FY: EMBED Equation.3 (6) Eq. (6) represents a master curve type formulation of the crack driving force, which is both size and geometry independent. However, it does depend on the strain hardening exponent N. Graphical ETM 97/1 construction for assessing acceptable and critical conditions for a given flaw is presented in Fig. 4.  EMBED Word.Picture.8  Figure 4. ETM 97/1: Graphical construction for assessing of the acceptability of a given flaw [8] SINTAP procedure The SINTAP (Structural INTegrity Assessment Procedures for European Industry) procedure combines elements of R6 and the ETM. Assessment can be done using both the FAD and CDF philosophies. The basis of both approaches is that failure is avoided so long as the structure is not loaded beyond its maximum load bearing capacity defined using both fracture mechanics criteria and plastic limit analysis. In the FAD approach, both the comparison of the crack tip driving force with the materials fracture toughness and the applied load with the plastic load limit are performed at the same time. In the CDF approach the crack driving force is plotted and compared directly with the materials fracture toughness. The choice of approach is left to the user, and will depend upon user familiarity with the two different approaches and the analytical tools available. There is no technical advantage in using one approach over the other. The procedure offers several assessment levels and options. The levels are in hierarchical order: higher levels are more advanced than lower levels; they need more complex input information, but the results are then less conservative. Input data are including material data, load and geometry. Deformation behaviour of material can be described by Re, Rp0,2, Rm and if possible complete stress strain curve. Charpy energy as a toughness measure of structure material is necessary to know, while crack resistance curve with statistical distribution is maximal requirement on the crack resistance. Due to loads, it is recommended to calculate membrane- and bending stress distribution (eventually stress concentration) by finite element method. The geometry of the component should be drawn from engineering drawings. The flaw geometry could be determined by nondestructive testing (NDT). Increasing quality of the input data causes decreasing conservatism of the assessment. SINTAP procedure can be applied to determine the acceptability of a given set of conditions, determine the value of a critical parameter, assess the safety margins against failure or determine the probability of failure. The description of the SINTAP procedure with all details related to levels of analysis, significance of results etc. is given in the final report [9]. Acknowledgement The authors gratefully acknowledge to Ministry of Science and Technology of Republic of Croatia for support to their investigations sponsored in the research project 0152-015. References [1] ASTM 399-90, Standard test method for planestrain fracture toughness of metallic materials, Annual book of ASTM standards, Vol. 03.01, American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshocken, 2000 [2] ASTM E 813-81, Standard test method for JIC, a measure of fracture toughness, , Annual book of ASTM standards, Vol. 03.01, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 2000. [3] BS 7910:2000, Guide on methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in metallic structures, British Standards Institution, London, 2000. [4] ESIS P2-92, ESIS procedure for determining the fracture behaviour of materials, European Structural Integrity Society ESIS, Technical Committee 1: Elastic-Plastic Fracture, Subcommittee 1.4: Fracture Mechanics Testing Standards, 1992. [5] EFAM GTP 94, The GKSS test procedure for determining the fracture behaviour of materials, GKSS Forschungszentrum Geesthacht GmbH, Geesthacht, 1994. [6] EFAM 96, The engineering flaw assessment method (EFAM) - Report GKSS 98/E/40, GKSS Forschungszentrum Geesthacht GmbH, Geesthacht, 1998. [7] Milne, I., Ainsworth, R., Dowling, A. and Stewart, A., Assessment of the Integrity of Structures Containing Defects, British Energy, R/H/R6 Rev. 3, 1986. [8] Schwalbe, K.H., Basic Engineering Methods of Fracture Mechanics and Fatigue, Seminar on Structure Integrity Assessment by the Use of Fracture Mechanics Parameters, Maribor, 2001. [9] Structural Integrity Assessment Procedures for European Industry: SINTAP, Final Report, Contract No. BRPR-CT95-0024, Project No. BE95-1426, Report No. BE95-1426/FR/7, 1999. 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