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Probing the role of metal speciation in copper nanoparticles as a driver of adverse outcomes during embryogenesis of urchins Paracentrotus lividus, Arbacia Lixula and Sphaerechinus granularis

Copper and copper oxide nanoparticles (CuNPs) are widely used in a broad range of industrial applications encompassing biotechnology, medicine and health care, biomonitoring and environmental remediation. Their use in ship anti-fouling paints presents a direct route into marine environments where they can impact on a wide range of organisms at all life stages, from embryos to adults. Sea urchins have been widely used as a model in developmental biology and as a bioindicator for the marine environment. In this study, the effects of copper and copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO, Cu2O) on fertilisation success and transmissible damage to offspring during embryogenesis of the sea urchins Paracentrotus lividus, Arbacia lixula and Sphaerechinus granularis were analysed. Subsequently, the ability of the exposed sperm to successfully fertilise untreated eggs, given as fertilization rate, was tested. After fertilisation, zygote growth to the pluteus larva stage was monitored over 72-96 h and these offspring of treated sperm were scored for developmental defects, developmental delays and death. While copper ions are known to be toxic to organisms and are often used as a positive control in bioassays, copper and copper oxide nanoparticles showed values close to those of Cu2+ ions. Furthermore, zero-valent copper nanoparticles were found to be least toxic while the oxides of copper caused greater suppression of fertilisation. All plutei offspring showed increasing numbers and types of developmental defects as a function of copper concentration. The most common abnormalities were found to be delayed development, exogastrulation and skeletal defects and were present in plutei of all three urchin species. Exposure of sperm to copper nanoparticles may have significant negative consequences not only in their ability to successfully fertilise eggs but also in potentially causing transmissible damage to the subsequent offspring. Ultimately, the species of urchin must also be considered when investigating the toxicity of nanoparticles since not all species are equally sensitive.

Copper Nanoparticles ; Embryogenesis ; Sea Urchins

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